Archive-name: civil-war-usa/faq Last-modified: 1994/3/19 Version: 1.56 alt.war.civil.usa FAQ v1.56 (19 Mar 1994) This is a collection of answers to frequently asked questions in alt.war.civil.usa (and some not-so-frequently, too!) will be posted on or about the 20th of each month. It was compiled by Justin M. Sanders (jsanders@orph01.phy.ornl.gov) who tried to be as complete and accurate as possible, but who is definitely human and has probably made several errors. Please send comments, suggestions, or corrections to the address above. The topics covered are (a plus means a new entry, an asterisk means a revised entry): Part 0: alt.war.civil.usa Q0.1: What is this group anyway? Q0.2: Are the FAQ and Reading List archived somewhere? Part 1: The beginning of the War Q1.1: When did state X secede? Q1.2: Was there a declaration of war or something? Q1.3: Who were the U.S. Generals on 1 Jan 1861? Part 2: Battles and fighting forces Q2.1: What are the alternate names of various battles? Q2.2: What were the naval ranks during the Civil War? Q2.3: What were the organization and strengths of various units in the armies? Q2.4: What is the difference between grapeshot and canister? Part 3: The end of the War Q3.1: When did the war end? Q3.2: If the rebel states were never considered legally out of the Union, how was Reconstruction justified? Part 4: Miscellaneous Q4.1: My ancestor fought in the war, how do I find out about his service? Q4.2: What is the "Stars and Bars"? Q4.3: What changes to the U.S. flag occurred during the war? Q4.4: How was the state of West Virginia created? Q4.5: What war records did the post-war presidents have? Q4.6: What are the various alternate names for the war? Q4.7: What are good books on the war? Q4.8: How can I get the soundtrack to Ken Burn's "Civil War"? Answers Part 0: alt.war.civil.usa Q0.1: What is this group anyway? The charter of alt.war.civil.usa reads: The purpose of this group is the discussion of topics related to the United States Civil War (1861-65). Topics can involve military, political, social, economic or other factors which impacted upon this period of history. This newsgroup will also serve as a source of information, assistance, or referral for persons seeking guidance via responses from more knowledgeable subscribers. Q0.2: Are the FAQ and Reading List archived somewhere? Yes, the latest versions of the FAQ and Reading List are available for anonymous ftp at: rtfm.mit.edu /pub/usenet/alt.war.civil.usa/U.S._Civil_War_FAQ /pub/usenet/alt.war.civil.usa/U.S._Civil_War_Reading_List Part 1: The beginning of the War Q1.1: When did state X secede? Before Lincoln's call for troops, the following states seceded: 1. South Carolina, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 20 Dec 1860 2. Mississippi, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 9 Jan 1861 3. Florida, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 10 Jan 1861 4. Alabama, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 11 Jan 1861 5. Georgia, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 19 Jan 1861 6. Louisiana, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 26 Jan 1861 7. Texas, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession, 1 Feb 1861, to take effect 2 Mar 1861 provided it was ratified by the voters on 23 Feb 1861. Texas admitted to the Confederacy, 2 Mar 1861. After Lincoln's call for troops on 15 Apr 1861, the following states seceded: 8. Virginia, Convention rejected secession 4 Apr 1861, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession 17 Apr 1861 and ratified C.S.A. Constitution, both subject to ratification of voters 23 May 1861. Virginia admitted to CSA 7 May 1861. 9. Arkansas, Convention rejected secession ordinance on 18 Mar 1861 and called for referendum in August, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession 6 May 1861. Arkansas admitted to C.S.A. 20 May 1861. 10. North Carolina, Voters rejected calling a Convention 28 Feb 1861, Legislature called Convention 1 May 1861, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession 20 May 1861. North Carolina provisionally admitted to CSA 17 May 1861. 11. Tennessee, Voters rejected calling a Convention 9 Feb 1861, On 6 May 1861 Legislature passed "Declaration of Independence" and ratification of CSA Constitution subject to referendum on 8 June 1861. Tennessee admitted to CSA 17 May 1861. The following two states never seceded via any mechanism provided by a legitimate government: 12. Missouri, Convention rejected secession 9 Mar 1861, rump legislature passed Ordinance of Secession 31 Oct 1861 and requested admission to CSA. Missouri admitted to CSA 28 Nov 1861. 13. Kentucky, southern sympathizers called for convention Oct 1861, Convention passed Ordinance of Secession 18 Nov 1861. Kentucky admitted to the CSA 10 Dec 1861. Sources: Civil War Day-by-Day; Official Records, Ser. IV, Vol 1. Q1.2: Was there a declaration of war or something? 1. The United States never declared war. This was in keeping with its position that the rebel states did not form a new nation, rather they were states in which a rebellion was taking place. Abraham Lincoln issued a Proclamation that an insurrection existed in the states of SC, GA, FL, AL, MS, LA, and TX on 15 Apr 1861 (Messages & Papers of the Presidents,V,p3214). 2. The Confederate States passed "An Act recognizing the existence of war between the United States and the Confederate States" on 6 May 1861. This act exempted MD, NC, TN, KY, AR, MO, DE, and the territories of AZ and NM, and the Indian Territory south of KS. Sources: McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom; Official Records, Ser. IV, Vol. 1 Q1.3: Who were the U.S. Generals on 1 Jan 1861? From: cwa@sgfb.ssd.ray.com (Carlton W. Andrews) USA Generals 1/1/1861 Winfield Scott M.G. 6/25/1841 John E. Wool B.G. 6/25/1841 David E. Twiggs B.G. 6/30/1846 [Twiggs was dismissed 3/1/1861 for handing/surrendering all men and equipment in Texas to the state of Texas] William S. Harney B.G. 6/14/1858 [Harney went to Europe rather than fight for either side] Joseph E. Johnston QM-B.G. 6/28/1860 [staff appt.] Notes: Albert Sidney Johnston was Colonel of the Second Cavalry and brevet Brig. General. I believe he was promoted to B.G. (but will have to check) to replace Twiggs. Edwin V. Sumner was Colonel of the First Cavalry. He was promoted B.G. US Volunteers with a commission date of 3/16/61. Part 2: Battles Q2.1: What are the alternate names of various battles? Union Confederate Bull Run, VA Manassas 21 July 1861 Wilsons Creek, MO Oak Hills 10 Aug 1861 Logan's Cross Roads, VA Mill Springs 19 Jan 1862 Pea Ridge, AR Elkhorn Tavern 6-8 Mar 1862 Pittsburg Landing, TN Shiloh 6-7 Apr 1862 Bull Run, VA (2nd) Manassas 29-30 Aug 1862 Antietam, MD Sharpsburg 17 Sept 1862 Chapell Hills, KY Perryville 8 Oct 1862 Stones River, TN Murfreesboro 30 Dec 1862-2 Jan 1863 Elk Creek, Ind. Terr. Honey Springs 17 July 1863 Sabine Cross Roads, LA Mansfield 8 Apr 1864 Opequon Creek, VA Winchester 19 Sept 1864 Q2.2: What were the naval ranks during the Civil War? From: roy_wells@qm.vitalink.COM (Roy H. Wells) Here is a short discourse from a friend and fellow re-enactor, Richard Staley (who commands the 69th NY Infantry in the NCWA): Todd's American Military Equippage: 1851-1870 lists naval ranks during the CW as: Admiral (grade created for David Farragut 25 July, 1866) Vice Admiral (grade created 21 December, 1864, Farragut being the first to hold this rank) Flag Officer (title created 16 July, 1862) Commodore (courtesy title until 16 July, 1862 when the grade was formally adopted) Captain Commander Lieut. Commander (grade created 16 July, 1862) Lieutenant Master (grade existed throughout the period; originally "sailing master"; became a commissioned rank in 1862 and after the period was changed to Lieutenant Junior Grade.) Ensign (title for a passed Midshipman after 16 July, 1862) Passed Midshipman (Midshipman who had passed his examination for promotion to Lieutenant; called Ensign after 1862 although the term continued in use.) Midshipman (grade given undergraduates of the U.S. Naval Academy; not strictly in the line of the Navy in the latter part of the century). Master's Mate Shipped or Rated Master's Mate (usually a warrant officer). Q2.3: What were the organization and strengths of various units in the armies? [Compiled with the assistance of: Stephen Schmidt and Dominic J. Dal Bello ] (A good source of information is Richard Zimmermann, _Unit Organizations of the Civil War_.) First, always remember that most Civil War units in the field were only at anywhere between 20% to 40% of their full strength. Thus, while in theory a company contained 100 men, and would be recruited at that size, by the time they reached the army they'd be down to 60 or so and after the first battle down to 40 or so. The full-strength sizes are given below, so remember to knock them down by 50% or more when reading about units engaged in battles. Second, due to casulties among the officers, frequently units would find themselves commanded by an officer one or two grades below the rank he should have for the job (e.g., a regiment commanded by a lieutenant colonel or major). Third, keep in mind that in the early stages of the war and in the more remote areas (such as the Trans-Mississippi), unit organizations tended to deviate more from the norm. What follows will be the ideal, your mileage may vary. I. Infantry. COMPANY. The basic unit is the company, commanded by a captain 100 men = 2 platoons = 4 sections = 8 squads A company has the following officers (commissioned and non-coms): Captain (1), 1st. Lieut. (1), 2nd. Lieut. (1) 1st Sgt. (1), Sgts. (4) and Corporals (8). When the company was divided into platoons, the captain commanded one and the 1st Lt. the other. There was a sergeant for each section, and a corporal for each squad. The 1st Sgt. "ran" the whole company. BATTALION and REGIMENT. Battalions and regiments were formed by organizing companies together. In the volunteers (Union and Confederate), 10 companies would be organized together into a regiment. The regiment was commanded by a colonel. A regiment has the following staff (one of each): Col.; Lt. Col.; Major; Adjutant (1st Lt); Surgeon (maj.); Asst Surgeon (capt.); Quartermaster (lieut); Commissary (lieut); Sgt-Major; Quartermaster Sgt. There were also volunteer organizations containing less than 10 companies: if they contained from 4-8 companies, they were called battalions, and usually were commanded by a major or lieutentant colonel. The (Union) Regular regts organized before the war (1st-10th) were 10 company regiments like the volunteers. When the NEW Regular regts. were authorized, a different organization was used. The new Regular regts were organized 8 companies to a battalion and 2 battalions to the regiment. Thus new Regular regts contained 16 companies. These regiments frequently fought as battalions rather than as single regiments. However, often the 2nd battalion could not be recruited up to strength, in which case they fought as a single regiment. BRIGADE A brigade is formed from 3 to 6 regiments and commanded by a brigadier general. The South tended to use more regiments than the North, thus having bigger brigades. At some times in the war, some artillery would be attached to the infantry brigade: see the Artillery section below. Each brigade would also have a varying number of staff officers. DIVISION A division is commanded by a major general and is composed of from 2 to 6 brigades. In the North usually 3 or 4, but in the South normally 4 to 6. Thus, a Southern division tended to be almost twice as large as its Northern counterpart, if the regiments are about the same size. At some times in the war, some artillery or, less often, cavalry might be attached: see the Cavalry and Artillery sections below. Each division would also have a varying number of staff officers. CORPS. A corps is commanded by a major general (Union) or a lieutenant general (Confederate) and is composed of from 2 to 4 divisions. Again the North tended to have 2 or 3, while the South had 3 or 4. Each corps would also have a varying number of staff officers. ARMIES. Corps within a geographic department were aggregated into armies. The number of corps in an army could vary considerably: sometimes an army would contain only 1 corps and other times as many as 8. Armies were commanded by major generals in the North, and usually by full generals in the South. Corps and armies usually had some artillery and cavalry attached: again, see below. Each army would also have a varying number of staff officers. To summarize, the nominal strengths and commanding officers were: UNIT MEN Commander Example NAME Company 100 Captain Co. A, B-K (not J, looks like I) Regiment 1000 Colonel 5th N.Y. Infantry Brigade 4000 Brig Genl 3rd Brigade (US) ** Division 12000 Maj. Genl Cleburne's Division (CS) ** Corps 36000 Maj. Genl* IIIrd Corps (US) ** Army Maj. Genl+ Army of Tennessee (CS) ++ * or Lt. Gen. in the South + or Gen. in the South ** Numerical designation was used in the North, the Commander's name was typically used in the South, e.g. Forrest's Corps ++ The South mainly used the name of the area or state where the army operated. Rivers were used primarily as names in the North, e.g. Army of the Cumberland. II. Cavalry. COMPANY or TROOP. The basic unit is the troop or company, organized pretty much the same way as an infantry company. The nominal strength was 100. If the troop dismounted for battle, 1 man in 4 would stay behind to guard the horses. BATTALION and REGIMENT. In the Union volunteers, 12 cavalry troops form a regiment commanded by a colonel. The Confederate Cavalry used a 10 company regiment. Again, the (Union) Regulars had a different organization: in the Regular units 2 troops form a squadron, 2 squadrons form a battalion, and 3 battalions form a regiment. And again, there were groups of 4-8 companies of volunteer cavalry which are called battalions. Initially, each Union cavalry regiment was assigned to an infantry division. The Confederates brigaded their cavalry together. The Union eventually adopted this organization as well. As the war progressed, both sides formed cavalry divisions (again the South took the lead). The North also formed cavalry corps, and the South later also adopted this innovation. III. Artillery BATTERY. The basic unit of artillery is the battery, which has 4 to 6 guns, is commanded by a captain, and has 4 lieutenants, 12 or so noncoms, and 120 or so privates. It typically had 4 guns in the South and 6 guns in the North. Batteries were a subdivided into gun crews of 20 or so, and into sections of 2 gun crews, 2 or 3 sections per battery. A gun crew was commanded by a sergeant and a section by a lieutenant. BATTALION or BRIGADE. At the start of the war, each side assigned one battery attached to each infantry brigade, plus an artillery reserve under the army commander. By mid-1862, larger organizations were used. The basic unit contained 3 or 4 batteries of artillery; it was called a battalion in the South and a brigade in the North (same unit, just a different name) and it was commanded by a colonel, lieutenant colonel, or major. ARTILLERY RESERVE. After 1862, it was typical for each infantry division to have an artillery battalion attached, and each corps or army to have a reserve of two to five battalions. Each division's artillery usually fought along side the infantry, while the corps/army reserves were used to form the massed batteries. The artillery reserve was commanded by a brigadier general or colonel. IV. Other Units LEGION. The Confederacy also organized a number of units known as legions. They were mixed-arms units, usually containing 6-8 companies of infantry, 2-3 companies of cavalry, and a couple artillery pieces. Generally as soon as they reached the battlefield they were broken apart, the infantry forming a battalion, the cavalry being reassigned to some other unit, and the artillery joining the reserve. Sometimes the infantry retained the name legion, more frequently it got renamed to battalion. MARINES. Both sides had a rudimentary Marine Corps which fought along the Atlantic coast. The US Marines contained about 3,000 men and were organized into companies. There doesn't seem to have been any organization higher than that: they rarely operated in larger units than a few companies anyway. The Confederate Marines had a strength of about 300 men organized in four companies and was nominally commanded by a colonel. HEAVY ARTILLERY. The Union organized some "heavy artillery" units, regiments containing 10 artillery batteries (about 1800 men) which had training both as infantry and as artillerists. They were organized in much the same way as infantry units, but were quite a bit larger to provide enough men to run the guns. Originally raised to man the defenses of Washington, in 1864 they joined the Grant's army, and then served more as infantry. ENGINEERS. Both sides raised special regiments of engineers. They were organized similarly to the infantry regiments and were expert in building forts, entrenchments, bridges, and similar military construction. They were combatants but usually didn't do any fighting, instead continued to work on construction even when under fire. SHARPSHOOTERS. Both sides raised special sharpshooter units. The Confederate units tended to be independent companies, but the Union raised two sharpshooter regiments (Berdan's 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters). These regiments were organized as infantry. Usually they were assigned to skirmish duty, or they would be allowed to roam around the battlefield to find good positions from which to shoot at enemy officers in the rear. Q2.4: What is the difference between grapeshot and canister? Here is a list of the various ammunitions used in the war. References are: [1] "Ammunition", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed (1911). [2] F.T. Miller, ed., "Photographic History of the Civil War," vol. 5, "Forts and Artillery" (1957 edition). [3] "Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War" The main division is between shot (did not carry its own explosive charge) and shell (carried an explosive charge). For shot: 1. solid shot-- the standard cannon ball (or bullet shape in the in case of a rifled gun) 2. canister-- smaller shot placed in a sheet iron cylinder. The cylinder disintegrated when the gun was fired. 3. grape-- smaller shot layered between iron plates and held together by a central bolt. Presumably the bolt broke when the gun fired allowing the shot to scatter. Examples of grape shot can be seen in [2] pp. 76, 76 and 191. 4. quilted grapeshot-- small shot covered in canvass and tied up with rope which a gave it a quilted look. An example of quilted shot can be seen in [2], p. 177. 5. chain shot-- two shot joined by a chain. Used to destroy rigging of sailing ships. 6. bar shot-- two shot joined by a solid bar (like a dumbbell). Used to destroy rigging to sailing ships. 7. red hot shot-- shot heated before firing. Used to start fires on ships. For shell: 1. standard shell-- hollow iron projectile filled with explosive 2. shrapnel shell-- hollow iron projectile filled with explosive and with small solid shot which scattered upon explosion. The spherical version of this was called "spherical case" or simply "case." The term "case" was also used for the name of the class of rounds which scattered small shot, thus canister, grape, and spherical case were all classified together as "case shot." (confusing, isn't it?) Shell was fitted with either a timed fuse (which ignited the charge after some fixed delay) or a percussion fuse (which ignited the charge upon impact). Standard solid shot and standard shell were primarily for destruction of materiel (viz. fortifications or ships). Canister, grape, quilted shot and shrapnel were used against personnel. However, there were also varieties of (non-shrapnel) shell designed for use against personnel (the hollow was shaped so the shell would split into a relatively few large pieces about the size of small shot). Part 3: The end of the War Q3.1: When did the war end? 9 April 1865, Gen. R.E. Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia at Appomattox Courthouse, VA 26 April 1865, Gen. J.E. Johnston surrendered the Army of Tennessee et al. at Greensboro, NC 4 May 1865, Gen. Richard Taylor surrendered Dept. of Alabama, Mississippi, and Eastern Louisiana at Citronelle, AL 13 May 1865, engagement at Palmito Ranch, near Brownsville, TX, often taken to be the last engagement of the war 2 June 1865, Gen. E.K. Smith surrendered the Trans-Mississippi Department at Galveston, TX 23 June 1865, Brig. Gen. Stand Watie's troops in the Indian Territory surrendered at Doaksville. Watie was the last general to surrender his troops. 13 June 1865, Pres. Johnson proclaimed the insurrection in Tennessee at an end. (Messages and Papers of the Presidents, V, p3515) 2 Apr 1866, Pres. Johnson proclaimed the insurrection ended in all the former Confederate States except Texas. This was his recognition of the legitimacy of the governments formed under his Reconstruction proclamation. (Mess. & Pap. V, p3627) 20 Aug 1866, Pres. Johnson proclaimed that Texas had complied with the conditions of his Reconstruction proclamation and declared the insurrection in Texas at an end. (Mess. & Pap. V, p3632) Q3.2: If the rebel states were never considered legally out of the Union, how was Reconstruction justified? Although the states remained part of the U.S., they had no loyal governments, and the authority for the federal government to provide mechanisms to erect loyal state governments was derived from Article IV, Sec. 4 of the Constitution. That section provides that the United States shall guarantee to each state a republican form of government. Another provision of the Constitution which is important was Article I, Sec. 5 which provides that each House of Congress shall be the judge of the qualifications of its members. This allowed the Congress to refuse to seat delegations from former rebel states until the states had met the conditions of the Reconstruction Acts. The authoritative constitutional justification for reconstruction can be found in the Supreme Court's decision in Texas v. White (74 U.S. 227-243) delivered 12 Apr 1869. Part 4: Miscellaneous Q4.1: My ancestor fought in the war, how do I find out about his service? First, here are two good reference books that contain much more information than can be given in this FAQ: George K. Schweitzer, Civil War Genealogy, available from: G.K. Schweitzer, 7914 Gleason C-1136, Knoxville, TN 37919 B.H. Groene, Tracing Your Civil War Ancestor ISBN 0-345-36192-X An additional reference dealing in Confederate records is James C. Neagles, Confederate Research Sources: A Guide to Archive Collections (ISBN 0-916489-11-6, Ancestry Publications, P.O. Box 476, Salt Lake City, UT 84110) The basic information on your ancestor that you will need to know is his state, regiment, and (if possible) company, for example: Levi Lindsey Sanders, 6th Texas Cavalry (CSA), Company I. If you don't know the regiment name, you can often find it in 19th century county histories for the county your ancestor lived in. Also be careful with Confederate regiments; they were frequently referred to by the commander's name when they in fact had a numerical designation, for example: 2nd Texas Partisan Rangers a.k.a. Stone's Regiment a.k.a. Chisum's Regiment. There are frequently indexes listing all the soldiers from a state which were published in the 19th century as well (this is almost without exception for the Union states, more rare for the Confederate states). The National Archives has published a Consolidated Index to Compiled Confederate Service Records on microfilm which is available in many large historical libraries (the service records themselves are also frequently on microfilm at the library). A useful bibliography of regimental and state histories is C.E. Dornbusch, Military Bibliography of the Civil War (4 vols). Assuming that you have the above information, you can obtain copies of your ancestor's service records by writing to the National Archives. Write to: Reference Services Branch (NNIR), National Archives and Records Service, 8th and Pennsylvania Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20408 and request NATF Form 80. You may wish to request 3 or more copies, especially if you are researching a Union veteran or multiple veterans. When you have the forms, fill one out as completely as possible and check "military service" (Schweitzer recommends that you write in red ink next to the veteran's name "Please send complete contents of files.") If your ancestor fought for the Union, he may have a pension file; you may fill out a second Form 80 and check "pension record" (again Schweitzer recommends requesting the entire contents of the file). (The National Archives will not have pension records for Confederate veterans, but some former Confederate state did give pensions and their archives may have the records, details can be found in the above references especially Neagles.) Some weeks later, the Archives will send you a letter indicating what they have located and how much it will cost to copy it. Q4.2: What is the "Stars and Bars"? The "Stars and Bars" IS NOT the familiar "rebel" flag one sees adorning license plates and carried by the KKK-- that is the CS Naval Jack, based on the CS battle flag. The Stars and Bars design was approved by a committee of the Provisional Congress on 4 Mar 1861, but was never made official by law. The bottom red stripe ran the entire length of the flag and was 6 units long and 1 unit wide. Above it, and to the left was a blue square, 2 units on a side. In the blue square, a circle of stars (one for each state, initially seven, to represent the original seven Confederate States, eventually thirteen). To the right of the square, two stripes, white below, red above, each 1 unit wide and 4 units long. The Stars and Bars' similarity to the U.S. flag caused problems of mistaken identity at 1st Bull Run/Manassas, so a battle flag for the Army of Northern Virginia was designed. It was blue saltire ("X" shape) on a red SQUARE field. On the saltire was placed stars equal to the number of Confederate States (in principle, eleven at the time of the initial design, but up to thirteen by the end of 1862). This flag design was soon picked up by the other armies and branches of service. The CS Navy flew an oblong version as a Naval Jack which is identical to the oblong "rebel" flags seen today. By a law approved 1 May 1863, a new national flag was adopted by the Confederate States-- the "Stainless Banner". It was a field of white twice as long as wide, in the upper left was the battle flag (square) with a side two-thirds the width of the field. This flag had the drawback that when partially wrapped around the flagstaff, the non-white part was covered. This made it look like a white flag of surrender. Furthermore, its length to width ratio of 2 to 1 made it an unusually long flag which exacerbated the problem. A law approved 4 Mar 1865, modified the "Stainless Banner" to correct its problems. The revised flag was 10 units wide and 15 units long. In the upper left was an oblong battle flag 6 units wide and 7 units long. The field was white, as before, except on the fly end there was a vertical red bar 4 units wide. The above dimensions, in terms of units, are derived from the much more convoluted description given by the flag act. This flag was the last national flag of the Confederacy. Q4.3: What changes to the U.S. flag occurred during the war? The admission of two states affected the U.S. flag during the war. By the Flag Act of 1818, a new star was added on the 4 July following the admission of a state. Stars were added on 4 July 1861 for Kansas (admitted 29 Jan 1861, the 34th state) and on 4 July 1863 for West Virginia (admitted 20 June 1863, the 35th state). Nevada, the 36th state, was admitted during the war on 31 Oct 1864, so its star was added 4 July 1865 after hostilities were over (more or less, see Q3.1). Q4.4: How was the state of West Virginia created? The Va Secession Convention passed an ordinance of secession (to be ratified by the people) about 17 Apr 1861. A mass meeting was held in Clarksburg and called for a Convention of western/unionist counties to meet in Wheeling. The 1st Wheeling Convention met 13 May 1861 with 425 delegates from 25 counties, it decided to adjourn until after the vote on the secession ordinance. The ordinance of secession was ratified by popular vote on 23 May 1861 at which time new legislators were also elected. The 2nd Wheeling convention met 11 June 1861 and included the western counties' members-elect to the VA legis. On 19 June, the convention passed an ordinance "reorganizing" the state government (creating a "loyal" one), and on 20 June, Francis Pierpont was chosen governor. On 1 July 1861, the members of the legislature elected on 23 May and some holdovers from the old legislature met, finished the organization of the Reorganized state govt., and elected 2 U.S. Senators-- this government was recognized as legitimate by the U.S. On 6 Aug, the Wheeling convention reconvened, and on 20 Aug 1861 passed an ordinance to divide the state. The division ordinance was ratified by the people on 24 Oct. From 26 Nov 1861 to 18 Feb 1862, the convention wrote a constitution for the proposed new state which was approved by the voters on 11 Apr 1862. Lincoln signed the enabling act on 31 Dec 1862 which admitted W.VA on the condition that its constitution include a provision for the gradual abolition of slavery. The Convention reconvened yet again, and amended the state constitution to abolish slavery on 12 Feb 1863. This amendment was approved by the voters on 26 Mar 1863. Lincoln proclaimed (on 20 Apr 1863) that W.Va would officially be admitted in 60 days. During the interval, W VA elected new officers-- A.I. Boreman was elected 1st governor, and VA unionist government under Gov. Pierpont was moved to Alexandria. On 20 June 1863, West Virginia was officially admitted to the Union. In 1866, Virginia repealed the act approving the division, and brought suit in the U.S. Sup. Crt. to have the division overturned. In particular, it wanted Berkeley and Jefferson Cos. returned. On 10 Mar 1866, Congress passed a joint resolution approving the previous transfer of the counties to W.Va. In 1871 the Supreme Court decided in favor of W.Va., thus settling the matter of division. Source: Virginia and West Virginia articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th ed. Q4.5: What war records did the post-war presidents have? From: tecump@sulu.ucsb.edu (Dominic J. Dal bello) Date: 23 Apr 93 17:11:42 GMT OK, I have looked up what the presidents after Lincoln and up to McKinley did in the war (from _The Complete Book of US Presidents or something like that. ANDREW JOHNSON: In March, 1862, President Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of Tennessee with the rank of brigadier general. ULYSSES GRANT: No intro necessary (lieut. general) RUTHERFORD B. HAYES: served with the 23d Ohio Infantry from June, 1861, entering service as a major. October '61: promoted to lt. colonel; Oct. '62 promoted to colonel, commanding the 23d. After Cedar Creek (Oct. '64), promoted to brigadier general of vols. Received one of the infinitely many brevets dated March 13, 1865 to major general, vols. Resigned June, 1865. JAMES GARFIELD: Commissioned a lt. col in the 42nd Ohio, Aug. 1861, and promoted to Col. in November, '61. Commanded the 18th Brig. at Middle Creek, Jan. '62, defeating superior numbers, and was subsequently promoted to brigadier general. January, 1863-- appointed Chief of Staff to Rosecrans, "In a daring ride under enemy fire, during which his horse was wounded, he conveyed vital information from flank to flank. For this he was promoted to major general." Rosecrans said of him: "I feel much indebted to him for both counsel and assistance in the administration of this army...He possesses the instinct and energy of a great commander." Elected to Congress in Sept., 1863 Garfield resigned in Dec., 1863. CHESTER A. ARTHUR: Served in New York State militia from Feb. '58 to Dec. '62, rising from brigade judge advocate to quartermaster genl. In Jan, '61, appointed engineer-in-chief with rank of brigadier general. Apr, '61, promote asst. QM genl; Feb '62 inspect. genl; July `62, QM general. Spring `62 inspected NY troops in Virginia. War Gov. Edwin D Morgan said: "He was my chief reliance in the duties of equipping and transporting troops and munitions of war. In the position of Quarter Master General he displayed not only great executive ability and unbending integrity, but great knowledge of Army Regulations. He can say No (which is important) without giving offense." GROVER CLEVELAND: Drafted, but purchased a substitute. Paid $150 to George Brinske (or Benninsky), a 32-year-old Polish immigrant to serve in his place. BENJAMIN HARRISON: 17th Indiana Infantry, starting as a 2nd Lt in July, 1862. Eventually rose to brigadier general. "I am not a Julius Caesar, nor a Napoleon, but a plain Hoosier colonel, with no more relish for a fight than for a good breakfast and hardly so much." Commanded a brigade under Hooker in the Atlanta campaign. Hooker recommended him for promotion to brigadier general for foresight, discipline and fighting spirit. WILLIAM McKINLEY: 23d Ohio Infantry from June 61 to July '65, starting out as a private. April '62 commissary sergeant; for valor at Antietam (in getting rations to the men) promoted to 2nd Lt. commd'g Co. D, but put on Col. Rutherford Hayes' staff. Feb 63, promoted 1st Lt.; July 64, promoted captain. Served on staffs of George Crook and Winfield S Hancock. March, 1865, breveted major. In uniform, cast his first vote in 1864 (for Lincoln). Hayes said of him: "Young as he was, we soon found that in the business of a soldier, requiring much executive ability, young McKinley showed unusual and unsurpassed capacity, especially for a boy of his age. When battles were fought or service was to be performed in warlike things, he always filled his place." Q4.6: What are the various alternate names for the war? From: pdunn@magnus.acs.ohio-state.edu (Patrick L Dunn) >From Davis, B. (1982). -The Civil War: Strange and Fascinating Facts (Originally published as "Our Incredible Civil War). ISBN 0-517-37151-0 Chapter 13. Which War? pp. 79-80. The War for Constitutional Liberty The War for Southern Independence The Second American Revolution The War for States' Rights Mr. Linclon's War The Southern Rebellion The War for Southern Rights The War of the Southern Planters The War of the Rebellion The Second War for Independence The War to Suppress Yankee Arrogance The Brothers' War The War of Secession The Great Rebellion The War for Nationality The War for Southern Nationality The War Against Slavery The Civil War Between the States The War of the Sixties The War Against Northern Aggression The Yankee Invasion The War for Separation The War for Abolition The War for the Union The Confederate War The War of the Southrons The War for Southern Freedom The War of the North and South The Lost Cause The War Between the States The Late Unpleasantness The Late Friction The Late Ruction The Schism The Uncivil War and of course.... THE War, "as if the planet had not heard a shot fired in anger since '65." Q4.7: What are good books on the war? Steve Schmidt (whale@leland.Stanford.EDU) has compiled a recommended reading list which will be posted periodically as a supplement to this FAQ. Q4.8: How can I get the soundtrack to Ken Burn's "Civil War"? From Wayne J. Warf (WWARF@ucs.indiana.edu): The Civil War Elektra Nonesuch #9 79256-2 copyright 1990 ISBN# 0-681-92609-0 Songs of the Civil War Produced by Ken Burns and Don DeVito Columbia #CK 48607 Copyright 1991 by Sony Music Entertainment no ISBN# listed End of alt.war.civil.usa FAQ -- Justin M. Sanders "Nothing is more unfamiliar or Research Associate uncongenial to the human mind than Physics Division, ORNL thinking correctly about probabilities." jsanders@orph01.phy.ornl.gov --S.J. Gould, "Eight Little Piggies" ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Area # 2120 news.answers 03-19-94 13:14 Message # 8376 From : Justin M. Sanders To : ALL Subj : U.S. Civil War Reading L ÿ@FROM :JSANDERS@PHYS.KSU.EDU ÿ@SUBJECT:U.S. Civil War Reading List Message-ID: <2mffe1$c38@newserv.ksu.ksu.edu> Newsgroups: alt.war.civil.usa,soc.history,alt.answers,soc.answers,news.answers Organization: Department of Physics, Kansas State University, Manhattan KS, USA Archive-name: civil-war-usa/reading-list Last-modified: 1993/10/20 Version: 1.0 This reading list is a supplement to the alt.war.civil.usa FAQ and will be posted on or about the 20th of each month. The Suggested Civil War Reading List was compiled in the newsgroup alt.war.civil.usa in the summer of 1993. It lists 61 books, several of them with multiple volumes, as well as an 11 hour documentary film and a CD of Civil War era songs. This reading list was compiled by Stephen Schmidt (whale@leland.Stanford.EDU) to whom additions and corrections should be addressed. The material is sorted into 11 general categories as follows: 1. General Histories of the War 2. Causes of the War and History to 1861 3. Slavery and Southern Society 4. Reconstruction 5. Biographies and Autobiographies 6. Source Documents and Official Records 7. Unit Histories and Soldier's Reminisences 8. Fiction 9. Specific Battles and Campaigns 10. Strategies and Tactics 11. The Experience of Soldiers General Histories of the War James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom. 1988. A comprehensive history of the United States from about 1845 until Appomattox. About 40% of the book is on the prewar years, the rest on the war. This book is up to date, reflects most (though not all) of the historical research on the war, and is a single volume which is well written, easy to read, and accessible to the non-historian. If you read only one book on the war, this one should probably be it. Shelby Foote, The Civil War: A Narrative. New York, 1958. 3 volumes. Published seperately as Fort Sumter to Perryville, Fredricksburg to Meridian, and Red River to Appomattox. A history of the War, focusing on the history of the Confederacy more than on Union operations. Until McPherson's book, the most popularly read history of the War. Bruce Catton, The Centennial History of the Civil War. New York, Doubleday Books, 1963. Three volumes: published seperately as The Coming Fury, Terrible Swift Sword, and Never Call Retreat. The Union counterpoint to Foote: focuses primarily on the war as the Union saw it. First volume covers prewar material through First Bull Run, second volume Bull Run to Antietam, third volume the rest of the war. Robert Johnson and Clarence Buel, editors. Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. 4 volumes. 1887. A series of articles on the various battles of the Civil War, written by generals from both sides who had fought in the battles. A troublesome book: like most firsthand sources, it tends to be inaccurate on the details, especially of the opponent's actions, and also tends to reflect the author's needs to justify himself more than what actually happened. However, an excellent, and fairly comprehensive, collection of first-hand descriptions of the battles by the men who fought them. Jeremy Barnes, Pictoral History of the American Civil War. 1988. This book gives one of the best short synopsis of the causes of the war, the importance of various battles, and a sense of overall strategy. Plus an excellent collection of drawings, paintings, and photographs. Allan Nevins, The Ordeal of the Union. 8 volumes. 1971. Also published as three shorter series: volumes 1-2 as The Ordeal for the Union, volumes 3-4 as The Emergence of Lincoln, volumes 5-8 as The War for the Union. Covers much the same ground as McPherson but in much more detail. Focuses at least as much on the political, strategic, and logistical side of the fighting as on the battles and tactics. Covers the Union in more detail than the Confederacy but both sides are described. Ken Burns, The Civil War. An 11 hour motion picture documenting the war. First shown on PBS and highly acclaimed, now available from Time Life Video on 9 VHS tapes. There is also a companion book, The Civil War: An Illustrated History which you can get. Causes of the War and History to 1861 William Freehling, Road to Disunion: The Secessionists at Bay 1787-1854. 1990. A good, though idiosyncratic, one volume treatment of the South's development of the secessionist mindset. Richard N. Current, Lincoln and the First Shot. 1963. A vivid narrative and scholarly analysis of the decision to resupply, and not to surrender, Fort Sumter. Regards Lincoln's second inaugural as containing a succinct and true characterization of the crisis - that both sides preferred war to compromise - and that Lincoln felt that to compromise on Fort Sumter without the Southern states promising to dissolve their secession conventions was futile appeasement. Bruce and William Catton, Two Roads To Sumter. 1963. Compares the lives of Lincoln and Davis starting with their births close together in time and space. It then uses their two diverging lives as a microcosm of the national drift to war. David M Potter, Lincoln and His Party in the Secession Crisis. 1942. A professional historian's treatise. Not light reading, but a quite compelling account of the blunders and circumstances that led to the outbreak of war. Slavery and Southern Society Eugene Genovese, Roll Jordan Roll: The World the Slaves Made. 1974. * this book still needs a description * Fogel and Engerman, Time on the Cross. 1974. A comprehensive and HIGHLY controversial study of slavery in the Old South. Though the authors are not apologists for slavery, they do conclude that slavery was not as bad as it had been made out to be and had a number of positive redeeming features. A long literature has followed this book which has largely, though not entirely, repudiated it. It is probably unwise to read this book unless you also intend to start in on the following discussion, some of which is also summarized below. Paul David, et al, Reckoning with Slavery. A straightforward, point by point rebuttal of Time on the Cross by a number of respected historians and economists. If you read Time on the Cross, you should really read this one also so as to get both sides of the issue at once. Gavin Wright, Old South New South. 1988. A comparison of the Southern economy before and after the war, with emphasis on the effects of slavery and its abolition. Kenneth M. Stampp, The Peculiar Institution. 1956. Another broad treatment of Southern slavery, but somewhat more accepted and more traditional than Fogel and Engerman's. Reconstruction Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unifinished Revolution. 1990. A comprehensive history of the Reconstruction period, and the effects of the abolition of slavery on the Southern economy and Southern society. Tends towards the belief that slavery was the cause of the war, and emphasizes that. Biographies and Autobiographies Stephen Oates, With Malice Towards None. 1977. Biography of Abraham Lincoln. William Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Man and the Hour. 1990. Evenhanded account of Davis that examines primary sources critically. Well written. Humanizes Davis. Illustrates his strengths and weaknesses. Definitive work on Davis and why and how he ran the Confederacy. Stephen Oates, To Purge This Land With Blood. 1970. Biography of John Brown. Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of US Grant. 2 volumes. 1885. Basically an autobiography, though concentrating on his ACW career. Horace Porter, Campaining with Grant. 1896. Recollections of one of Grants aides de camp on the history of the war. One of the most widely cited primary sources in subsequent literature, this book has had a large impact on Grant's historical reputation, probably larger than Grant's memoirs have had. William T. Sherman, Memoirs of W.T. Sherman. 2 volumes. 1887. Sherman's autobiography. Phil Sheridan, Personal Memoirs of Philip Sheridan. 1888. Sheridan's autobiography. Douglas S. Freeman, Robert E. Lee: A Biography. 4 volumes. 1935. The definitive biography of Lee, who never wrote his own memoirs. James Longstreet, From Manassas to Appomattox. 1893. Longstreet's autobiography. Take this book with a large grain of salt: Longstreet had been unjustly attacked by many former Confederate generals (notably Jubal Early) and this book is his reply. William Piston, Lee's Tarnished Lieutenant. 1988. Reviews Longstreet's military record, the attacks against him by the Virginia clique, and Longstreet's replies. The best and most accurate review of Longstreet's controversial career, it largely though not completely supports the pro-Longstreet camp. An interesting book, not only in its coverage of Longstreet, but as a reflection on how history is made, and how it can become inaccurate when personal vendettas and political pressure come into play. GFR Henderson, Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War. 2 volumes. 1898. Biography of Stonewall Jackson, who also never wrote his own memoirs, because dead people don't. John Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War. 1903. Autobiography of Gordon, who after the Big Three of Longstreet, Jackson, and Stuart, is probably the most distinguished of Lee's generals. Another book that has to be read carefully, it is largely accurate but has a number of scenes that were completely made up by Gordon to vindicate himself after the other eyewitnesses to events had died. Ezra Warner, Generals in Blue. 1964. Quick biographies of all the men ranked brigadier general or higher in the Union army. Good for a quick background or for looking up particular biographic details. Ezra Warner, Generals in Gray. 1964. Same as above for the Confederates. Source Documents and Official Records The books on this section of the list are here as valuable references, and are not something that you would actually sit down and read. However, if you want to look something up first-hand, these are the books in which to do it. War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. 1903. A 128 volume publication, containing all of the official reports, orders and dispatches of the generals of both sides that survived the war. The definitive first-hand source for all aspects of the military side of the war. Not for beginners or for the faint-hearted. Usually abbreviated to OR. The Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies in the War of the Rebellion. 1927. A 31 volume publication covering the naval documents in the same manner as OR covers the army documents. The Official Civil War Atlas. 1895. A compendium of maps designed to accompany OR, prepared by the War Department in the 1880s and 1890s. Detailed tactical maps, though not particularly well labelled. Also contains a few pages on corps badges, uniforms, sword patterns, unit flags, etc. Doesn't contain much in the way of larger maps of states or regions. Frederic Dyer, A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion. 3 volumes. 1959. A summary of the Official Records: contains much of the interesting information and numerical data without the dross and kipple of the complete Records. Useful if you want to find something that is in OR but don't have the time to hunt through it. William Fox, Regimental Losses in the American Civil War. 1985. Regiment by regiment, lists all the losses suffered in the various battles of he war. Also contains synopsis histories of each corps in the Union Army, and a fair amount of other very interesting information. Mark Boatner, The Civil War Dictionary. A dictionary of Civil War names, places, battles, and terms, with one paragraph descriptions of each. Designed as a quick and easy reference to let you get a quick grasp of a subject starting from only a name or place. * date? * Military Bibliography of the Civil War. 4 vols, 1987. A listing of books published in Union and Confederate regiments, and personal narratives. 1987 is the latest update. An ideal way to track down the wartime experiences of a relative whose unit is known. Unit Histories and Soldier's Reminisences Sam Watkins, Company "Aytch". 1885 or so. Reminisences of Sam Watkins, private in Company H of the First Tennessee Volunteer Infantry. Very down to earth story of what it was like to be a Confederate private. Does not discuss miltary history or issues at all - purely one soldier's impression of the war. Rice Bull, The Civil War Diary of Rice Bull. The personal reminiscences of one of Sherman's bummers who marched through Georgia. Nolan, The Iron Brigade. 1975. A unit history of the brigade composed of the 2nd, 6th, and 7th Wisconsin and the 19th Indiana, later the 24th Michigan, probably the best brigade in the Army of the Potomac. William C Davis, The Orphan Brigade. A unit history of the Kentucky brigade of the Confederate Army of Tennessee. Particulary poignant in describing the emotions of men whose states, and often families, were fighting on the other side of the firing line. Joshua L. Chamberlain, The Passing of the Armies. Contains two equal parts: a history of the Appomattox campaign and of the Grand Review of the Army of the Potomac in Washington, by a man who was a major general commanding a division in the V corps, who received the official Confederate surrender at Appomattox. Elisha Hunt Rhodes, All For The Union. 1985. The diary and letters of Colonel EH Rhodes, Second Rhode Island Volunteers. Rhodes enlisted as a private and worked his up through the ranks, reaching Colonel of the regiment in 1865. His firsthand impressions of the war in the East. Fiction Michael Shaara, Killer Angels. 1974. A novelized version of the Gettysburg campaign, told from the viewpoints of Lee, Longstreet, and Joshua L. Chamberlain, colonel of the 20th Maine. A must-read for those who want to know what it was like to be there. Stephen Crane, The Red Badge of Courage. 1891. The most literary novel to emerge from the Civil War. It is a loose description of the battle of Chancellorsville, although it doesn't say so. It's about three Union enlisted men, and their motivations for fighting the war. Ambrose Bierce, In the Midst Of Life. A collection of short stories: the first half of the book is stories of soldiers in the War. His themes are (1) the nature of courage; (2) the ghastliness of war; (3) fighting between family members. Sort of "All Quiet on the Western Front" for the ACW. Specific Battles and Campaigns Robert Hendrickson, Sumter: The First Day of the Civil War. 1990. Describes activities associated with events in Charlston Harbor roughly from before the election of 1860 until Lincoln's call for troops. Includes several appendicies, one with the text of the "South Carolina Declaration of Causes". Has a strong Northern bias. Stephen Sears, Landscape Turned Red. 1983. An exceptionally good treatment of Antietam/Sharpsburg; Works equally well as a guide to the battlefield and to the politics and personalities of the moment. Stephen Sears, To the Gates of Richmond. 1992. The same for the Peninsula campaign and the Seven Day's Battles. Harry Pfanz, Gettysburg: The Second Day. 1989. A regiment by regiment, volley by volley accounting of the battles of July 2 at Gettysburg on the Union left. Probably the most detailed battle account ever written, good for those who want to understand the tactical details of how units maneuvered in combat. Robert Kerby, Kirby Smith's Confederacy. 1972. The definitive account of the war west of the Mississippi. Discusses the generals and campaigns, the irregular warfare in Missouri, the home front in the West, and the relationship of the Western theater to the whole war in about equal parts. Glenn Tucker, Chickamauga, Bloody Battle in the West. 1964? A fairly detailed tactical history of Chickamauga, with some comments though not many on the preceeding campaign and on the general history of the Western Offensive plan that Longstreet and Johnston, among others, had been advocating for some time. Noah Trudeau, Bloody Roads South. 1989. History of the Grant's 1864 campaign from the Wilderness to Cold Harbor. Contains an excellent description of Grant's strategy, tactics, and the problems therewith as they manifested themselves in operations against Lee. Ludwell Johnson, The Red River Campaign. 1958. The history of the Red River campaign of 1864. Provides about an equal mix of battle tactical details, and the political maneuvering over Southern cotton that led to the campaign in the first place. Wiley Sword, Embrace An Angry Wind. 1991. The Franklin/Nashville campaign. Richard Wheeler, The Siege of Vicksburg. 1978. A history of the siege of Vicksburg and the campaign leading up to it. Wheeler tends to use eyewitness accounts heavily, tracing the broad outlines in his own words but letting the participants speak for themselves on the details of what happened. Wheeler has written many more books in the same style, if you like this one you might want to read his other books. Strategies and Tactics Kenneth P Williams, Lincoln Finds a General. 5 volumes. 1959. A study of the command problems of the Union army. T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and his Generals. 1952. A shorter version of the same material. Douglas Freeman, Lee's Lieutenants. 1944. A study of the generals of the Army of Northern Virginia who served under Lee. Primarily intended as a study in the makings of commanders, it also gives a solid history of Lee's strategy for the war in the East as well as providing a good working biography of nearly all the important Confederate generals in the Eastern theatre. Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won. 1983. An excellent introduction to 19th century strategy, logistics and grand tactics. Essential for an understanding of why and how battles came to be fought where and as they did. Concerns itself less with battle accounts than with operations and command organization. Paddy Griffith, Battle Tactics of the American Civil War. Presents the thesis that the Civil War tactics were dominated by Napoleonic thinking that was never really supplanted until after the war. A somewhat controversial book. The Experience of Soldiers Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: the Experience of Combat in the American Civil War. 1987. Looks at the 1861 volunteers of both sides and traces the emotional and psychological changes which their war experiences inflicted upon them over time. John Bell Wiley, Johnny Reb. A collection and study of the collected reminiscences of a number of Southern soldiers, providing a detailed look at the life of enlisted men in the Confederate army. John Bell Wiley, Billy Yank. Same as Johhny Reb for the Northern side. Tennessee Williams Sings Songs of the Civil War. Capitol Records. Compact disc. A collection of Civil War songs sung by Tennessee Williams. *********************************************** The Civil War Reading list was compiled by Stephen Schmidt. Suggestions for the list were made by: Justin Sanders, James Miller, Charles Ten Brink, Brent Chambers, Kerry Webb, Blake Wood, Phil Feller, Michael Kochin, Wilson Clements, Ron Skroboda, Michael Dubost, David Turrell, Paul Cowan, Coty Pinckney, David Spencer, Robert Ligon, Michael Neiburg, Dallace Unger, Gary Charbonneau, Jerry Drake, and Michael McCarthy. Requests for suggestions were originally posted on alt.war.civil.usa, and two previous drafts were posted there for comments and further suggestions. Steve Schmidt <>< whale@leland.stanford.edu **** End of Reading List **** -- Justin M. Sanders "Nothing is more unfamiliar or Research Associate uncongenial to the human mind than Physics Division, ORNL thinking correctly about probabilities." jsanders@orph01.phy.ornl.gov --S.J. Gould, "Eight Little Piggies" -------------------------------------------------------------------------------