questions (and their answers) about the central Asian country of Tibet. It should be read by anyone who wishes to post to the talk.politics.tibet newsgroup. Archive-name: tibet-faq This FAQ was created for the Usenet newsgroup talk.politics.tibet and addresses various issues that are discussed in that newsgroup on a recurring basis. Some controversial issues are dealt with by quoting published arguments on both sides, in addition to relevant primary source material. Also included are the addresses of various organizations that deal with Tibet and a guide to the additional sources of information that are available, both on the Internet and in print. The maintainers of this FAQ are: Peter Kauffner Nima Dorjee Suggestions for improvement should be sent to . ----TABLE OF CONTENTS---- Introduction A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)? Historical Issues B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history (timeline)? B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan history? B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet? B4) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet? B5) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)? B6) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51 invasion? Human Rights C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions? C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated? C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation? Statistical Issues D1) What is the total population of Tibet? D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)? D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics? Further Information E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet? E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet? E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to? E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet? E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend? F0) Sources Section A: INTRODUCTION A1) What are the meanings of specialized words used on TPT (glossary)? The following is a glossary of words related to Tibet. When the pronunciation of a word differs from what one might expect from the standard spelling, a phonetic spelling is given between slash marks (//). Words in all CAPITAL letters have glossary entries of their own. AMBAN--A representative of the QING emperor who resided in the territory of a tributary state or dependency. The Qing mission in Lhasa was usually headed by two Ambans of equal status. AMDO /ahm'doh'/--The Tibetan name for a region located northeast of Lhasa. It includes the bulk of QINGHAI Province, as well as the Kanlho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture in Gansu Province. Along with KHAM and U- TSANG, it is one of Tibet's three historic regions. Each of these regions speaks its own distinctive dialect of Tibetan. Amdo is also known as Dotoh province. BOD --The Tibetan word for TIBET. The word _Bod_ may be derived from BON. BODPA --The Tibetan word for `Tibetan,' both as a noun and as an adjective. BON--Tibet's pre-Buddhist, animist religion. Cf. NYINGMAPA CCP--Chinese Communist Party. The ruling party of China since 1949. (The Chinese government prefers `CPC'--Communist Party of China.) DALAI LAMA--Tibet's most renown line of incarnate LAMAs. The Dalai Lamas reigned as kings of Tibet from 1642 until 1959. The current Dalai Lama has lived in exile since 1959. See question B2. DL-- DALAI LAMA GELUGPA /ge'luk'pa'/--The dominate Buddhist sect in Tibet and Mongolia. The literal translation of _gelugpa_ is `model of virtue.' The sect was founded by the Tibetan monk Tsongkhapa in the 15th century and is also known as the Yellow Hat sect. Cf. RED HAT. HAN--The Chinese word for an ethnic Chinese. More precisely, a _Han4_ is someone whose primary or ancestral language is Chinese (_Han4yu3_), and who does not belong to any of China's various other officially recognized ethnic groups. KAGYUPA--Tibet's third largest monastic order. The name means `transmitted word.' The Kagyupa order consists of several sub-orders, including Karma Kagyupa, practiced in Sikkim, and Dukpa Kagyupa, the dominate faith of Bhutan. Cf. KARMAPA. KARMAPA--A line of incarnate LAMAs whose traditional residence is at Tsurphu Monastery near Lhasa. The Karmapa heads the Karma Kagyupa branch of the KAGYUPA order and is also known as the Black Hat lama. The 16th Karmapa died in Chicago in 1981. A successor was enthroned at Tsurphu in 1993, although some Karma Kagyupa members have refused to recognize him. KHAM--Tibetan name for eastern Tibet. This region is also referred to as the province of Domae. Western Kham is now in TAR (q.v.) while eastern Kham is in Sichuan (Szechwan) Province. KMT--Kuomintang The ruling party of China from 1928 to 1949. The ruling party of Taiwan since 1949. It is also known as the Nationalist Party. LAMA--The literal translation of this Tibetan word is `spiritual teacher.' There are two types of lamas, TULKU and root lamas. A root lama is a lay person who provides spiritual guidance to others. Prominent root lamas in Tibetan history include Padmasambhava and Milarepa. LHASA--The capital and largest city in Tibet with a population of 170,000. Lhasa is a shortened form of _lha sacha_, which means `god's place.' LOSAR--Tibetan new year. The next Losar will be on February 19, 1996. Cf. MONLAM CHENMO. MCMAHON LINE--The boundary for the eastern section of the frontier between Tibet and India. It runs from the eastern end of Bhutan to the great bend in the Brahmaputra River. British and Tibetan negotiators agreed to this boundary in a conference held in Simla, India in 1914. The line is named for Sir Henry McMahon, the head of the British negotiating team. Although China claims territory south the McMahon Line, it has generally respected the line in practice. MANCHU--a people who lived in what is now northeastern China for many centuries. Until 1636, they were known as the Jurchen. From 1644 to 1912, China was ruled by emperors of Manchu ancestry. Cf. QING. MONLAM CHENMO--The `great prayer festival,' which begins three days after LOSAR and continues for ten days. China currently prohibits the public celebration of Monlam and other Buddhist holidays in Tibet. NYINGMAPA--`The old order,' Tibet's second largest monastic order. Nyingmapa monks are not usually required to be celibate. The sect's rituals include many elements that were derived from BON. PANCHEN LAMA--A title used by the head LAMA of Tashilhunpo Monastery in Shigatse. His spiritual authority is second only to that of the DALAI LAMA within the GELUGPA sect. See question B2. PAP--People's Armed Police. A paramilitary force created in 1983 to patrol border areas and to guard government buildings. It was used extensively to suppress demonstrations in Lhasa between 1987 and 1991. Cf. PSB. PLA--People's Liberation Army. The official name of the Chinese armed forces since 1949. The PLA is a combined service and includes ground, air, and naval units. PRC--People's Republic of China. The official name of China since 1949. PSB--Public Security Bureau. China's principle agency for enforcing criminal law, i.e. the regular police. Cf. PAP. QING /ching/--A dynasty of MANCHU origin which ruled China from 1644 to 1912. QINGHAI /ching'hi'/--A Chinese province created in 1928 to administer the bulk of Tibet's AMDO region. In 1992, the population of Qinghai was estimated to be 4.61 million, [Fiske94] of whom 58 percent were ethnic Chinese, 20 percent were ethnic Tibetan, and 14 percent were Hui (Chinese Muslim). The ethnic Chinese population is concentrated in the vicinity of Xining, the capital; all of the province's other prefectures are classified as `Tibetan autonomous.' RANG-BTSAN /rang'dsen'/--The Tibetan word for `independence' or `self- government.' RED HAT--Any of various Tibetan monastic orders established prior to the 15th century when the GELUGPA order was founded. The three largest Red Hat sects, in order of membership, are: NYINGMAPA, KAGYUPA, and Sakyapa. ROC--Republic of China, the official name of China from 1911 to 1949. Although the ROC government has ruled only Taiwan since 1949, it still claims to be the legitimate government of all China, including Tibet. SELF-DETERMINATION--The determining by a people of the form their government shall have, without reference to the wishes of any other nation. The Charter of the United Nations calls for, `respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples.' SERF--A peasant bound to perform feudal obligations for a lord. Prior to 1959, most Tibetan peasants were either `taxpayer' serfs (_treba_) or `human lease' serfs (_mibogs_). Taxpayer serfs held hereditary title to land, were generally wealthier, and often hired other serfs as laborers. However, they also had considerable corvee and tax obligations. Human lease serfs had far more modest obligations, but no land of their own. TAR--Tibet Autonomous Region. China created TAR in 1965 to administer the Tibetan regions of U-TSANG and western KHAM. Despite its name, the TAR government does not in fact enjoy any significant degree of autonomy. The region's top policymaker is CCP Secretary Chen Kuiyuan, an ethnic Chinese appointed by Beijing. TASHI DELEK--A common Tibetan greeting. TGIE--Tibetan government-in-exile. See Question B2. TI-- Tibetan independence. TI can also stand for `Taiwan independence.' TIBET--The Tibetan government-in-exile refers to the entire Tibet- Qinghai Plateau as `Tibet.' But the word can also be used to refer to TAR (q.v.) only. `Tibet' is a word used in various European languages and was derived from the Arabic _Tibat_ or _Tobbat_, which was in turn derived from the Chinese TUFAN. [Partridge66] TPT--Talk.Politics.Tibet. The Usenet newsgroup for which this document is the FAQ. TSAMPA--roasted barley flour, a staple of the Tibetan diet. Various Tibetan celebrations, such as LOSAR, are marked by tossing _tsampa_ into the air. TSHONGDU--Tibet's national assembly, established in the 1860s. Included the heads of major government departments as well as representatives from the larger monasteries. Decisions were made by consensus. TUFAN--A Chinese name for Tibet used during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The second syllable of _Tu3fan1_ was traditionally pronounced /bo/, which means `warlike.' [Giles1] TULKU /te'ku'/--a monk who is considered to be the reincarnation of a great spiritual teacher. The preferred translation of _tulku_ is `incarnate LAMA.' An older, less accurate translation is, `living Buddha.' The Dalai and Panchen Lamas are Tibet's best-known _tulku_. U-TSANG /oh'tsong'/--The Tibetan name for central Tibet, now included in TAR (q.v.). XIZANG /she'tsong'/--The modern Chinese name for Tibet. The word is derived from U-TSANG and has been in use since the 18th century. [Kolmas67] The literal translation of _Xi1zang4_ is `western storehouse' or `western storeroom,' not `western treasure house' as is sometimes claimed. [Giles2] Section B: HISTORICAL ISSUES B1) What are the major events of Tibetan history? Year Description of Event 602 Namri Songtsen, lord of Yarlung, becomes the first king of Tibet 641 King Srongsten Gampo marries Princess Wencheng of China, his 2nd wife 670 Tibet conquers Kokonor, Xinjiang; prolonged warfare with China begins 747 King Trisong Detsen invites Padmasambhava, yogin of Swat, to Tibet 763 Tibet captures Changan, capital of Tang China; tribute paid to Tibet 779 Samye, Tibet's 1st monastery, built by Trisong Detsen & Padmasambhava 792 Exponents of Indian Buddhism prevail in debate with Chinese at Samye 821 Tibet signs its last peace treaty with Tang China: `Tibetans shall be happy in Tibet and Chinese shall be happy in China.' [Walt1] 842 King Langdarma murdered by a monk; Tibet splits into several states 1040 Birth of Milarepa, 2nd hierarch of Kagyupa order and a renown poet 1073 Founding of Sakya, the first monastery of the Sakyapa monastic order 1206 An assembly names Genghis Khan first ruler of a unified Mongol nation 1234 Mongols led by Ogodai Khagan defeat Jurchen and conquer north China 1247 Sakya Pandita submits to Godan Khan; beginning of the first priest/ patron relationship between a Tibetan lama and a Mongol khan 1261 Tibet is reunited with Sakya Pandita, Grand Lama of Sakya, as king 1279 Final defeat of Song by Mongols; Mongol conquest of China complete 1350 King Changchub Gyaltsen defeats Sakya and founds a secular dynasty 1368 China regains its independence from the Mongols under Ming dynasty 1409 Ganden, 1st Gelukpa monastery, built by monastic reformer Tsongkhapa 1435-81 In prolonged warfare, the Karmapa's supporters gain control of court 1578 Gelugpa leader gets the title of Dalai (`Ocean') from Altan Khan 1640 Gushri Khan, leader of Khoshut Mongols, invades and conquers Tibet 1642 Gushri Khan enthrones the 5th Dalai Lama as temporal ruler of Tibet 1644 Manchu overthrow Ming, conquer China, and establish the Qing dynasty 1653 `Great Fifth' Dalai Lama meets Qing Emperor Shunzhi near Beijing 1682 Fifth Dalai Lama dies; regent conceals death for the next 14 years 1716-21 Italian Jesuit priest Ippolito Desideri studies and teaches in Lhasa 1717 Dzungar Mongols invade Tibet and sack Lhasa; Fifth DL's tomb looted 1720 Dzungars driven out; Qing forces install Kesang Gyatso as the 7th DL 1721 The position of Amban is created by a 13 point Qing decree on Tibet 1724 A Qing territorial government is created for Kokonor (now Qinghai) 1750 Ambans murder regent; rioters kill Ambans; Qing troops sent to Tibet 1792 Qing troops enter Tibet to drive out Gorkha (Nepalese) invaders A ban on visitation by non-Chinese is imposed; Ambans gain powers 1854-56 Nepal defeats Tibet; peace treaty requires that Tibet pay tribute 1904 British troops under Colonel Younghusband enter Tibet & occupy Lhasa 1910-12 Qing troops occupy Tibet, shoot at unarmed crowds on entering Lhasa 1911 Bogh Haan, the Urga `Living Buddha,' proclaims Mongolia independent 1912 Last Qing emperor abdicates; Republic of China claims Mongolia,Tibet 1913 13th Dalai Lama proclaims Tibet a `religious and independent nation' Mongolia and Tibet recognize each other in a treaty signed in Urga 1914 Britain and Tibet agree to McMahon Line in a treaty signed in Simla 1917-18 Tibet defeats Chinese forces in Kham, recovers Chamdo (lost in 1910) 1919-21 Mongolia occupied by a pro-Japanese faction of the Chinese army 1921 Soviets recognize Mongolia with Bogh Haan restored as monarch 1924 Mongolian People's Republic proclaimed; Urga is renamed Ulan Bator 1924-25 Monk-military tensions lead to dismissal of British-trained officers 1928 Chiang Kai-shek defeats the northern warlords and reunites China 1930-32 China captures Derge in Kham in first Sino-Tibetan clash since 1918 1933 Truce made with Qinghai; the 13th Dalai Lama dies at the age of 58 1934 Reting Rimpoche named regent; China permitted to open Lhasa mission 1937 Britain publishes Simla Convention and begins enforcing McMahon Line 1940 The five-year-old Tenzin Gyatso is enthroned as the 14th Dalai Lama 1941 Unable to keep celibacy vow, Reting is replaced as regent by Taktra 1942 U.S. army officer goes to Lhasa to present a letter for DL from FDR 1943 The British Foreign Office affirms that Tibet is `already self- governing and determined to retain [its] independence.' [Walt2] 1944 U.S. military aircraft crash lands near Samye; crew escorted to India 1945 Newly opened English-language school is closed after monks protest 1946 The Republic of China recognizes the Mongolian People's Republic 1947 ex-Regent Reting attempts to kill Regent Taktra with a package bomb Reting dies while under house arrest; he was apparently poisoned British mission in Lhasa is transferred to a newly independent India 1947-49 Tibetan Trade Mission travels to India, Britain, U.S., and China; mission meets with British Prime Minister Clement R. Attlee 1949 People's Republic of China is proclaimed by Chinese Communist Party PRC recognizes Mongolia, announces its intention to `liberate' Tibet 1950 Red China invades Tibet; Tibetan army destroyed in battle at Chamdo 1951 17-point agreement between China and Tibet; Chinese occupy Lhasa 1956 Tibetans in Kham and Amdo (Qinghai) begin revolt against Chinese rule Dalai Lama visits India for 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's birth 1957 The United States begins to arm the Tibetan resistance via CIA 1959 Anti-Chinese revolt spreads to Lhasa; 14th Dalai Lama flees to India 1960 International Commission of Jurists: `acts of genocide [have] been committed...to destroy the Tibetans as a religious group.' [ICJ1] 1960-62 Tibet experiences its first famine as grain is requisitioned by PLA 1962 China-India War: China advances beyond McMahon Line, then withdraws First communes set up in TAR; property collectivized w/o compensation 1964 The Panchen Lama is arrested after calling for Tibetan independence 1963 DL approves a democratic constitution for a future liberated Tibet 1965 China sets up Tibet Autonomous Region in U-Tsang and western Kham 1966-69 Cultural Revolution: Red Guards vandalize temples, attack `four olds' 1971 The United States cuts off military aid to the Tibetan resistance 1974 Nepal forces the Tibetan resistance to abandon its base in Mustang Sikkim votes overwhelmingly to join India; Ladakh opened to tourists 1978 Visitors find 8 temples left in TAR, down from 2,700 in 1959 [Far95] 1979 Tibet is opened to non-Chinese tourism for the first time since 1963 1979-80 China allows a series of three delegations from DL to visit Tibet 1980 CCP leader Hu Yaobang visits Lhasa; he promises to `relax' controls and `restore the Tibetan economy to its pre-1959 level.'[Strauss] úÿ `Responsibility system' distributes collectivized land to individuals 1982 Writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn calls CCP regime in Tibet `more brutal and inhuman than any other communist regime in the world.'[Walt3] 1985 Bomb defused in Lhasa during the TAR 20th anniversary celebration 1987 Police fire on a massive pro-independence demonstration in Lhasa 1988 Qiao Shi, politburo member and internal security chief, visits Tibet and vows to `adopt a policy of merciless repression.' [Asia90] Speaking in Strasbourg, France, the Dalai Lama elaborates on his 1987 `five point' proposal for Tibetan self-government within China. 1989 Police kill 80-150 in Lhasa's bloodiest riots in 30 years [Schwartz] Martial law imposed in Lhasa; Dalai Lama receives Nobel Peace Prize 1990 China lifts martial law in Lhasa 13 months after imposing it 1992 China creates incentives to encourage foreign investment in TAR Chen Kuiyuan named CCP leader for Tibet, calls for a purge of those who `act as internal agents of the Dalai Lama clique.'[Kristof93] Over 30,000 visitors arrive in TAR's `Golden Year of Tibetan Tourism' 1993 Residents of Lhasa protest for independence, against inflation and the charging of fees for formally free medical services [Kaye93] 1994 Potala, former residence of the DL, is restored at a cost of $9 mln. 1995 A report on Chinese human rights violations, including one case where a Tibetan nun was beaten to death, is narrowly rejected by the UN DL recognizes 6-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as 11th Panchen Lama The 60th birthday of Tenzin Gyatso, 14th DL, is celebrated on July 6 Lavish festivities are held to mark the TAR's 30th anniversary (9/1) DL visits U.S.; criticizes U.S. for delinking human rights and trade B2) What were the roles of the Dalai and Panchen Lamas in Tibetan history? The Dalai Lama was traditionally considered supreme in both temporal and spiritual matters while the Panchen Lama was traditionally considered supreme in spiritual matters. A contradiction is therefore created when the two lamas disagree, a recurring problem in Tibetan history. Tenzin Gyatso, the current Dalai Lama, was born to a Tibetan peasant family in Qinghai in 1935. He was discovered at the age of two by a search party of high-ranking monks who gave him various traditional tests and concluded that he was the reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama (1876-1933). He was proclaimed 14th Dalai Lama in 1939 by the Tshongdu. When the Chinese occupied Tibet in 1951, the Dalai Lama at first attempted to cooperate with the new rulers. But concern for his personal safety sparked an anti-Chinese revolt in 1959. He then fled to India, crossing the border just ahead of pursuing Chinese troops. He now heads a government- in- exile which administers Tibetan refugee camps and has its headquarters in Dharamsala, India. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989 and has met with U.S. Presidents George Bush and Bill Clinton. His autobiography, listed under question E5, is banned in Tibet. The first Panchen Lama (1570-1662) was the tutor of the `Great Fifth' Dalai Lama (1617-1682). As a result of a dispute between the Tibetan government and the Panchen Lama's Tashilhunpo Monastery over tax arrears, the 9th Panchen Lama (1883-1937) fled to Mongolia in 1923. He died fourteen years later at Jyekundo in Qinghai, still an exile. His officers (_labrang_) chose as 10th Panchen Lama (1938-89) a boy born in Qinghai. At the insistence of China, the Tibetan government confirmed this choice in 1951. The Panchen Lama was then brought to Tibet by a Chinese military escort and enthroned. Despite repeated Chinese demands that he do so, the Panchen Lama never denounced the Dalai Lama. In 1964, the Panchen Lama made a speech in which he declared, much to the surprise of his Chinese handlers, that `Tibet will soon regain her independence.' He also sent a `70,000 character letter' to Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai which accused his government of pursuing a policy aimed at `genocide and elimination of religion.' In response, the Chinese accused the Panchen Lama of `counterrevolutionary crimes.' He was then arrested, imprisoned, and tortured. He was released in 1977, married an ethnic Chinese, and moved to a large house in the center of Beijing. As a vice chair of the National People's Congress, China's national assembly, he often appeared on Chinese television. He died in 1989 of a heart attack, according to reports in the Chinese media. [Southerland89] In 1995, the Dalai Lama recognized the six-year-old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the 11th Panchen Lama. B3) Did slavery exist in old Tibet? The following account was written by Sir Charles Bell, who was the British administrator for Chumbi Valley in 1904-05. At that time, Chumbi Valley was under British occupation pending payment by Tibet of an indemnity which resulted from the Younghusband Expedition of 1904. Slaves were sometimes stolen, when small children, from their parents. Or the father and mother, being too poor to support their child, would sell it to a man, who paid them _sho-ring_, `price of mother's milk', brought up the child and kept it, or sold it, as a slave. These children come mostly from south-eastern Tibet and the territories of the wild tribes who dwell between Tibet and Assam. Two slaves whom I saw both appeared to have come from this tribal territory. They had been stolen from their parents when five years old, and sold in Lhasa for about seven pounds each. Of their country they remembered but little save that it was isolated, and outsiders who entered it were killed. [Bell24] In China, slavery was officially banned in 1909. But it continued to exist in practice well into the 1950s. It is estimated that in 1930 China had about 4 million child slaves (_nu2bei4_). [Meltzer93] B4) What is the historical basis of the Chinese claim to Tibet? Here is how the Chinese Communist magazine _Beijing Review_ explains it: From ancient times, the Mongolians had been one of China's nationalities. In the 13th century, their power expanded rapidly. Genghis Khan united the tribes under a centralized Khanate in 1206. The outcome was a unified country [China] and the formation of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. In the process, the Mongol Khanates peacefully incorporated Tibet in 1247 after defeating the Western Xia and the Jin. With a unified China, the Yuan Dynasty contributed greatly to the political, economic and cultural development of the nation's various nationalities--in strict contrast to the feuding that had gone on since the late years of the Tang Dynasty (618-907). To argue that the Mongolians' campaign to unify China was fundamentally the imposition of rule by a foreign power is wrong because it misses the basic point of Chinese history that China is a multi-national country. Whether it was the Mongolians, the Manchus (who founded the Qing Dynasty), or any other peoples, it has always been a case of one Chinese nationality replacing another. It is completely out of the question to claim that the Mongolians or the Manchus were outsiders who conquered China. [BR-F89] A Tibetan view is provided by the current Dalai Lama: During the Vth Dalai Lama's time [1617-1682], I think it was quite evident the we were a separate sovereign nation with no problems. The VIth Dalai Lama [1683-1706] was spiritually pre-eminent, but politically, he was weak and disinterested. He could not follow the Vth Dalai Lama's path. This was a great failure. So, then the Chinese influence increased. During this time, the Tibetans showed quite a deal of respect to the Chinese. But even during these times, the Tibetans never regarded Tibet as a part of China. All the documents were very clear that China, Mongolia and Tibet were all separate countries. Because the Chinese emperor was powerful and influential, the small nations accepted the Chinese power or influence. You cannot use the previous invasion as evidence that Tibet belongs to China. In the Tibetan mind, regardless of who was in power, whether it was the Manchus, the Mongols or the Chinese, the east of Tibet was simply referred to as China. In the Tibetan mind, India and China were treated the same; two separate countries. [Gyatso89] B5) What was Tibet's status during China's Qing dynasty (1644-1912)? The Tibetan view of their relationship with the Qing Empire was expressed by the 13th Dalai Lama in his 1913 proclamation of independence: `The relationship between Tibet and [imperial] China was that of priest and patron and was not based on the subordination of one to the other.' [Walt4] Subordination was, however, an integral part of the Chinese view of international affairs. In traditional Chinese legal doctrine, the emperor was a universal ruler. Any territory that was not under direct imperial administration was considered to be either tributary or rebellious. In the official records of the Qing dynasty, _Da Qing Lichao Shilu_, various nations with a wide variety relationships with the Qing Empire are listed as tributary states (_shu2guo2_), including Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, Britain, and even the Papacy. [Walt5] In Qing documents written during the early years of the dynasty, Tibet is referred to as a _guo2_ (nation). [Brunnert12] This suggests a status equivalent to that of, say, Korea or Vietnam. In later years, however, Tibet is referred to as a _fan1bu4_ (dependency). [Walt6] In reaction to a British military expedition to Lhasa in 1904, the Qing government began to assert itself more vigorously in Tibetan affairs. This change in policy is reflected in the maps that were published in China during this period. The earliest example I have found of a map which shows Tibet as a part of China was published in Shanghai in 1910. [Atlas10] In contrast, a popular Chinese atlas first published in 1879 has a map of the Qing Empire which shows Korea, Manchuria, Taiwan, and China proper, but not Tibet. [Yang75] While the Qing (or Manchu) Empire is often referred to as `China,' it was in fact a multi-national dynastic state. Turks, Mongols, Manchus, Koreans, and ethnic Chinese (Han) were each governed on a separate basis and no attempt was made to create a common nationality or citizenship. Since 1911, however, the Chinese government has based its legitimacy on ethnic Chinese nationalism. B6) What was Tibet's status immediately prior to China's 1950-51 invasion? In international law, there are four requirements that an entity must satisfy to be considered an independent state. They are: 1) a permanent population 2) a defined territory 3) a government 4) the capability of entering into relations with other states In a report published in 1960, the International Commission of Jurists, a Geneva-based human rights organization, concluded that the Dalai Lama's government satisfied these requirements: The view of the COMMITTEE was that Tibet was at the very least a _de facto_ independent State when the Agreement on Peaceful Measures in Tibet was signed in [May] 1951, and the repudiation of this agreement by the Tibetan Government in 1959 was found to be fully justified. In examining the evidence, the COMMITTEE took into account events in Tibet as related in authoritative accounts by officials and scholars at first hand with the recent history of Tibet and official documents which have been published. These show that Tibet demonstrated from 1913 to 1950 the conditions of statehood as generally accepted under international law. In 1950, there was a people and a territory, and a government which functioned in that territory, conducting its own domestic affairs free from any outside authority. From 1913-1950 foreign relations of Tibet were conducted exclusively by the Government of Tibet and countries with whom Tibet had practice as an independent State. [ICJ2] There are, however, a number of governments which satisfy the legal requirements for independence, but which are nonetheless not generally considered to be independent states. For example, the Soviet republics of Byelorussia and Ukraine certainly had permanent populations, defined territories, governments, and were even members of the United Nations. But before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few considered them to be independent. It is perhaps more useful to exam whether Tibet was considered to be independent both by the Tibetan government itself and by those governments that dealt with the Tibetan government. Several quotations that represent the views of such governments are given below. The official view of the British government was expressed in the following note sent to the governments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa on 4 June 1943: Tibetans are a different race from Chinese and have a different religion, language, and culture. They have never been absorbed culturally by the Chinese; on the contrary, Chinese in Tibet have often become more Tibetan than Chinese. For over thirty years they have enjoyed _de facto_ independence and do not wish to be resubjugated. Their memories of Chinese rule are those of disorder of and incompetence, whereas the Dalai Lama's administration has great moral authority. Chinese nationalists claim all territories formerly incorporated in the Manchu dynastic empire, but as the new China is based on a purely Chinese nationalism there appear to be few grounds on which China can justifiably assert unqualified control over a nation isolated by geography, already self-governing and determined to retain the same independence which China advocates for other countries of the Far East such as Burma and the Malay States. [Walt2] A `Treaty of Friendship and Alliance' was concluded between Mongolia and Tibet in Urga on 11 January 1913. Its first paragraph is as follows: Mongolia and Thibet, having freed themselves from the dynasty of the Manchus and separated from China, have formed their own independent States, and, having in view that both States from time immemorial have professed one and the same religion, with a view to strengthening their historic and mutual friendship...[they] have made the following agreement. [Walt7] Finally, a Chinese view is provided by _Beijing Review_: The word "independence" has different meanings. In the early stage of the revolution, many provinces declared "independence." In this context, "independence" involved ending the Qing Dynasty rule rather than the establishment of a new nation separate from the country as a whole. This is clearly expressed in Sun Yat-sen's declaration of January 1912 on the republicanization of the Han, Manchu, Mongolian, Hui and Tibetan nationalities when he was interim president: "After Wuhan took the lead to revolt, several other provinces declared independence. This `independence' meant exclusion of the Qing court through alliances with other provinces. This also applies to Mongolia and Tibet." In October 1912 when the government of the Republic of China reconfirmed the 13th Dalai Lama's right to his title, Tibet did neither refuse to accept the decision nor demand independence. At this point, it is worth mentioning the so-called "Mongolia-Tibet Treaty" that was much rumoured at the beginning of 1913. According to some foreign newspapers, this treaty opened with a statement that following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Mongolia and Tibet had declared themselves independent nations. The 13th Dalai Lama and his followers denied this rumour (as has been recorded in various books written by some foreigners), unlikely behaviour if he had really wanted independence. [BR-F89] In view of the allegation made in the last paragraph, it should be noted the the existence and validity of the Mongolia-Tibet Treaty is acknowledged in _Information Mongolia_ (1990), a book compiled by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. [Academy90]. Section C: HUMAN RIGHTS C1) Are Tibetan women being forced to have abortions? The following account is from _Sky Burial_ (1993) by Blake Kerr. Kerr is an American physician who visited Tibet in 1987. I spoke with a Tibetan nurse named Chimi who had worked for three years at Lhasa's People's Hospital. She explained to me China's family-planning policy for urban Tibetans. Chimi had learned English well and we were able to speak without a translator. "Tibetan women are allowed to have two children," Chimi said, "but if they have one this is considered best. The work unit leader is in charge of enforcing the central government's policies. In public meetings that everyone is required to attend, women are told that it is best to have one child. If they are sterilized after the first child, praise will be given for being a good citizen. "If a woman has a second child," she continued, "the child will have rights. But this is discouraged. Sterilization is done automatically on many women delivering their second child at Chinese hospitals. "Having a third child is strongly discouraged. An illegal child has no ration card for the monthly allotment of Tibetan dietary staples at government stores: seven kilos of _tsampa_, one-half kilo yak butter, and cooking oil. Without a ration card a child cannot go to school, do organized work, travel, or own property. "In villages there are thousands of illegal children. Tibetans would rather have their own way." When asked how these children survived, Chimi said that such "illegal persons" had to do things like collect dung.... My stomach felt queasy as Chimi described how "unauthorized" pregnancies were routinely terminated with lethal injections. Chimi said that she herself had given hundreds of these injections....[Kerr93] C2) How are Tibetan political prisoners treated? The following quote is from a 1988 news story that appeared in _The Washington Post_. It is based on the interviews of two former prisoners arrested on March 5, 1988 during a large pro-independence demonstration. Both former prisoners were held at the Gutsa detention center near Lhasa. [The released lay prisoner] said that interrogators beat seven monks from one monastery, and then stuffed all seven into a small confined water channel. The guards then "stomped all over their bodies," he said. "They beat us with whatever was at their disposal, including wash basins and mugs," he said. "They kicked us and used pistol butts and ...wooden sticks on us." The released prisoner said that interrogators used electric cattle prods as an instrument of torture. Some prisoners also underwent the "Chinese rope torture," he said. "I saw people hanging from ropes tied to their arms behind their backs, suspended with their feet off the ground. Two of the people I saw had their shoulders dislocated by the rope. Many became úÿ unconscious as a result." Both former prisoners said that those who were treated most harshly in the prisons were Tibetan nuns. Most of the imprisoned nuns have been released from prison but were said to be reluctant to talk about the experience. The most brutal of the guards were said to be Tibetans, not Chinese. [Southerland88] A recent Amnesty International report includes a list 628 Tibetans who spent at least some time in prison during the period 1992-94 as result of their political beliefs. [Strib95] C3) How many Tibetans have died as a result of the Chinese occupation? The following table was made up by the Bureau of Information of the Tibetan government-in-exile: TIBETAN DEATHS UNDER CHINESE OCCUPATION (through 1988) CAUSE OF DEATH U-Tsang Kham Amdo Total ------------------------------------------------------------------------ --- Prisons,Labor Camps 93,560 64,877 14,784 173,221 Torture 27,951 48,840 15,940 97,731 Execution 28,267 32,266 96,225 156,758 Uprisings 143,253 240,410 49,042 432,705 Starvation 131,072 89,916 121,982 342,970 Suicide 3,375 3,952 1,675 9,002 TOTAL 427,478 480,361 299,648 1,207,387 Source: [Kewley90] Section D: STATISTICAL ISSUES D1) What is the total population of Tibet? Tibetan Population (in millions) Year All Ethnic Tibetans Tibet Aut. Reg. Source ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1268 1.0 -- [Goldstein81] 1900 1.0 -- [McEvedy78] 1953 2.776 1.274 [Banister87] 1964 2.501 1.251 [Banister87] 1982 3.870 1.892 [Banister87] 1990 4.593 2.196 [BR-D90][BR-N90] 1992 -- 2.28 [Fiske94] The figure for 1268 is an estimate made by American scholar Melvyn Goldstein on the basis of a Mongol census taken during that year. The figures for 1953, 1982, and 1990 are Chinese census results. The 1992 figure is an official Chinese estimate. Although officially described as census results, the figures for 1964 are actually estimates published by China's State Statistical Bureau in its report on the 1982 census. The apparent decline in population between 1953 and 1964 is more likely to be the result of an overcount in the 1953 census than of any actual decline in population. D2) How many ethnic Chinese live in Tibet (population transfer)? The view of the Tibetan government-in-exile is provided by its Department of Information and International Relations: Despite the lack of exact figures, and despite Chinese denials, the evidence points to a deliberate and long-standing population transfer policy. The policy is carried out largely with the help of Government incentive programs for Chinese from various Chinese provinces to relocate in Tibet. Higher wages, special housing, business and pension benefits are but some of the incentives provided. China's fourth population census in 1990 put the Chinese population (including a small number of Mongols) in the Tibetan provinces of Kham and Amdo at 4,927,369. However, it is said that there is at least one unregistered Chinese against every two registered ones. The actual Chinese population, both registered and unregistered, in these areas should be about 7.5 million. In the recent years, China is reported to have stepped up the transfer of its population to the "TAR" also. [Info93] Article 49 of the Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) states that, `The Occupying Power shall not deport or transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies.' In the previous quote, the word `Tibet' is used to refer to the entire Tibet-Qinghai Plateau. In contrast, the quote below, from a 1994 _Washington Post_ news article, uses the word to refer to TAR only, a much smaller area. Accurate figures for the ethnic breakdown of Tibet's population are difficult to obtain and are disputed by Chinese officials and the Tibetan exile community. Many Western analysts say the exile community's figures are highly exaggerated. Of Tibet's population of about 2.2 million, there are an estimated 66,000 ethnic Chinese with permanent residence status, according to Chinese officials. Not included are another 40,000 Chinese entrepreneurs who are part of an unofficial "floating population" and between 40,000 and 65,000 soldiers and paramilitary police, putting the total Chinese population in Tibet at no more than 8 percent... In Lhasa, about 50 percent of the population of 150,000 is now Chinese, longtime residents and Western analysts say. [Sun94] A 1995 report by the Tibet Support Group UK estimated TAR's `total non- Tibetan population to be between 250,000 and 300,000, not including small groups of peoples indigenous to the region.' The report also concluded that, For all the Chinese defined Tibetan autonomous areas (including the TAR) we estimate the total non-Tibetan population to be between 2.5 to 3 million; figures based on Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed the non-Tibetan total population to be 1.5 million; figures based on Chinese statistics from 1990 claimed the total Tibetan population for all the Tibetan autonomous areas to be 4.34 million. [Tibet95] D3) What are Tibet's economic statistics? Tibet (TAR) China (PRC) USA --------------------------------------------------------------------- Per capita GNP in U.S. dollars (1991) 254 370 22,535 Average annual growth in real income (1985-91) 5.5 8.1 0.8 Telephone main lines per 100 population (1992) 0.01 1 56 Percentage of adults who are literate (1990) 56 74 97 Sources: [Fiske94], [Overholt93], [US Census94], [World94] Section D: FURTHER INFORMATION E1) What World-Wide Web sites have further information about Tibet? CMU Lycos: the Catalog of the Internet http://www.lycos.com/ Carnegie-Mellon University's Internet search engine. Not specifically a Tibetan-related site: can be use to find information on any topic. Point Survey's number-one-rated Web site. DharmaNet Electronic Files Archive http://sunsite.unc.edu/dharma/defa.html An online Buddhist library maintained by DharmaNet International. Free Tibet Home Page http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/index.html This site maintains a list of Tibetan support organizations and their programs; articles with suggestions for action you can undertake to help Tibetans; and a Tibetan reading and resource list. Global Network Navigator--Travel Center http://nearnet.gnn.com/gnn/meta/travel/features/bigworld/bigworld14.html `Live from the Yak Hotel,' a traveller's tale by Jeff Greenwald. Home Page of Tibet http://sage.cc.purdue.edu/~wtv/tibet/Welcome.html This site features an essay on Tibetan history from a Chinese perspective by Professor T.T. Moh of the America-Tibet Association. IHEP/China (US mirror site) http://solar.rtd.utk.edu/~china/tour/tb.html This site is maintained by the Institute of High Energy Physics in Beijing. Janis Font's Home Page http://www.voicenet.com/voicenet/homepages/kunga Milarepa Project http://www.nando.net/music/gm/BeastieBoys/Info/Milarepa/ The Milarepa Project is part of the Music Kitchen site. Its file on Tibet was supplied by Adam Yauch of the Beastie Boys. Snow Lion Web Site http://www.well.com/user/snowlion/ A catalog of books on Tibet available from Snow Lion Publications. Talk.Politics.Tibet FAQ (An indexed version of this document.) http://www.manymedia.com/tibet/TibetResourcesPolFAQ.html Tibet Awareness Page http://www.earthlight.co.nz/users/sonamt/tibetinf.html Tibetan Studies WWW Virtual Library text http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVL-TibetanStudies.html images http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Map/tibetmaps.html images http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Art/tibetart.html These URLs are part of the Asian Studies WWW Virtual Library maintained by the COOMBS Computing Unit of Australian National University, Canberra. They provide web links to 120 facilities worldwide with Tibet- related information. Tibet Current Affairs http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Current/tin- bulletins.html An on-line archive of current affairs analyses and news bulletins maintained by the London-based Tibet Information Network. Tsurphu Foundation Home Page http://www.maui.net/~tsurphu/karmapa Information about Tsurphu Monastery, home of the Karmapas. E2) Where do I find information concerning travel to Tibet? An FAQ on traveling to Tibet was written by . It can be accessed via the following URL: http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/TibPages/Travel/travel-faq.html E3) What Tibet-oriented mailing lists can I subscribe to? You can have news about Tibet from a variety of viewpoints e-mailed to you by subscribing to World Tibet News. To subscribe, send an e-mail request to . In the body of the message, type `SUB WTN-L' followed by your full name (NOT your e-mail address). For example: SUB WTN-L Jane Q. User Tibet-L is a mailing list for discussing issues related to Tibet. According to the description provided by Sonam Darjyay , owner of the list, `News and views, comments and questions are welcome on topics such as tours of lamas, conferences, exhibitions, and seminars too. Particularly welcome are submissions on political developments in Tibet.' To subscribe, send an e-mail request to . In the body of the message type `SUBSCRIBE TIBET-L' followed by your full name. To cancel your subscription, send the command `SIGNOFF TIBET-L' in e-mail to . Send articles to be posted on the list to . E4) What are the addresses of some organizations that deal with Tibet? AUSTRALIA Office of Tibet 3 Weld Street, Yarralumla, Canberra ACT, 2600 Tel: (61-6) 285-4046 and (61-6) 282-4306 Fax: (61-6) 282-4301 [The Australian office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.] CANADA Canada-Tibet Committee 4675 Coolbrook, Montreal, Quebec H3X 2K7 Tel: (1-514)-487-0665 Fax: (1-514)-487-7825 E-mail: [Publishes World Tibet Network News, which is distributed weekly on both the talk.politics.tibet newsgroup and on the Tibet-L mailing list. The CTC is currently raising funds to improve Internet access for Tibetans living in India.] INDIA Bureau of His Holiness the Dalai Lama 10 Ring Road, Lajpat Nagar IV, New Delhi 110024 Tel: (91-11) 647-3386 Fax: (91-11) 646-1914 [The Dalai Lama can be e-mailed at the Tibetan Computer Resource Center . Use "TO: His Holiness" as the subject.] Department of Information and International Relations Central Tibetan Administration, Gangchen Kyishong, Dharamasala 176 215 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA International Campaign for Tibet 1735 Eye Street, NW, Suite 615, Washington, DC 20006 Tel: (1-202) 785-1515 Fax: (1-202) 785-4343 E-mail: [The ICT has produced a tourist map entitled `On This Spot: An Unconventional Map and Guide to Lhasa,' which includes `uncensored stories behind Lhasa's tourist sites.' The mail order cost is $6.95. The ICT also publishes _Tibet Press Watch_, a bi-monthly magazine for ICT members. Membership costs $25 a year.] Office of Tibet 241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016 Tel: (1-212) 213-5010 Fax: (1-212) 779-9245 E-mail: [The North American office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.] Students for a Free Tibet 241 E 32nd St., New York, NY 10016 Tel: (1-212) 213-5011 Fax: (1-212) 779-9245 E-mail: Tibetan Review, Potala Publications 241 East 32nd St., New York, NY 10016 [_Tibetan Review_ is published monthly in New Delhi by Tibetans. A subscription is $20 a year.] Tibetan Women's Association 241 E. 32nd St., New York, NY 10016 Tel: (1-212) 213-5010 [Working to see that the interests of Tibetan women are represented at the United Nations Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995.] UNITED KINGDOM Campaign Free Tibet 30 Hollingbourne Gardens, Ealing, London W13 Tel: (44-181) 998-8368 Office of Tibet Tibet House, 1 Culworth Street, London NW8 7AF Tel: (44-171) 722-5378 Fax: (44-171) 722-0362 [The British office of the Tibetan government-in-exile.] Tibet Information Network 7 Beck Road, London E8 4RE Tel: (44-181) 533-5458 Fax: (44-181) 985-4751 E-mail: [Independent news gathering and distribution service on Tibet] E5) What books about Tibet would you recommend? Goldstein, Melvyn C. _A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: the Demise of the Lamaist State_, Berkeley, 1989, xxv+898 pages. A nonpartisan, authoritative account by the foremost scholar of modern Tibetan history. Grunfeld, A. Tom. _The Making of Modern Tibet_, London, 1987, x+277 pages. A pro-Chinese account by a Canadian sinologist. Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV. _Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama_, New York, 1990, xiv+288 pages. The life story of a man who describes himself as `a human being, and incidently a Tibetan, who chooses to be a Buddhist monk' (p. xiii). Harrer, Heinrich. _Seven Years in Tibet_, New York, 1953, xiii+288 pages. A classic tale of travel and adventure, told by an Austrian mountain climber who became a tutor to the Dalai Lama. Richardson, Hugh Edward. _Tibet and its History_, Boulder, 1984, 327 pages. A British view, previously published as _A Short History of Tibet_. Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. _Tibet: a Political History_, New Haven, 1967, xii+369 pages. Shakabpa led the 1947-49 Tibetan Trade Mission which `travelled around the world on _Tibetan_ passports' (p. 323). Snellgrove, David L. and Richardson, Hugh Edward. _A Cultural History of Tibet_, Boston, 1986, 307 pages. A classic survey, now updated. Richardson was head of the British mission in Lhasa from 1937 to 1947. Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law_, Boulder, 1987, xxiv+381 pages. Makes a thoroughly documented case for Tibet's status as an independent nation. Section F: SOURCES [Academy90] Academy of Sciences, MPR. _Information Mongolia: The Comprehensive Reference Source of the People's Republic of Mongolia (MPR)_, Oxford, 1990, p. 119. [Asia90] Asia Watch Committee. _Merciless Repression: Human Rights Abuses in Tibet_, New York, 1990, p. 1. A UPI report said that this remark was made in a meeting with TAR local administrators in July 1988. [Atlas10] _Atlas of China = Ta-Ch'ing Ti-kuo Ch'uan-t'u_, Shanghai, 1910, map I. [Banister87] Banister, Judith. _China's Changing Population_, Stanford, 1987, pp. 322-23. [Bell24] Bell, Charles, _Tibet: Past and Present_, Oxford, 1924, pp. 78- 79. [BR-D90] `Population of China's Ethnic Nationalities,' _Beijing Review_, Beijing, 24 Dec 1990, p. 34. [BR-F89] "`Tibetan Independence'-- Fact or Fiction?" _Beijing Review_, Beijing, 13 Feb 1989, pp. 25-30. [BR-N90] `Tibetan Population Outgrows Average,' _Beijing Review_, Beijing, 26 Nov 1990, p. 10. [Brunnert12] Brunnert, H. S. and Hagelstrom, V.V. _Present Day Political Organization of China_, Shanghai, 1912. p. 467. This example is from a 1694 decree issued by the Kangxi emperor. [Far95] `High Stakes,' _Far East Economic Review_, Hongkong, 22 June 1995. [Fiske94] Fiske, John D., _China Facts & Figures Annual: 1994_, Gulf Breeze, 1994, pp. 88, 260, 293, 296. [Giles1] Giles, Herbert A. _A Chinese English Dictionary_, London, 1912, pp. 415, 1496. [Giles2] Ibid. pp. 504, 1434-35. úÿ [Goldstein81] Goldstein, Melvyn C. `New Perspectives on Tibetan Fertility and Population Decline,' _American Ethnologist_, Washington, Nov 1981, pp. 721-38. [Gyatso89] Gyatso, Tenzin, Dalai Lama XIV. _Tibet, China and the World: A Compilation of Interviews_, Dharamsala, 1989, p. 31. [ICJ1] International Commission of Jurists, Legal Inquiry Committee on Tibet. _Tibet and the Chinese People's Republic_, Geneva, 1960, p. 3. [ICJ2] Ibid. pp. 5-6. [Info93] Department of Information and International Relations, Central Tibetan Administration. `Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts,' Dharamasala, 1993. [Kaye93] Kaye, Lincoln. `Raging Inflation: Lhasa Price Protest Escalates into Anti-Chinese Riot,' _Far Eastern Economic Review_, Hongkong, 3 Jun 1993, p. 13. [Kerr93] Kerr, Blake. _Sky Burial: An Eyewitness Account of China's Brutal Crackdown in Tibet_, Chicago, 1993, pp. 163-64. [Kewley90] Kewley, Vanya. _Tibet: Behind the Ice Curtain_, London, 1990, p. 392. [Kolmas67] Kolmas, Josef. _Tibet and Imperial China: A Survey of Sino- Tibetan Relations up to the End of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912_, Canberra, 1967, pp. 27-28. [Kristof93] Kristof, Nicholas D. `Communist Party Chief Calls for a Purge in Tibet,' _The New York Times_, New York, 14 Feb 1993, p. 11. [Meltzer93] Meltzer, Milton, _Slavery: A World History_, New York, 1993, Vol. II, p. 258. [McEvedy78] McEvedy, Colin, and Jones, Richard. _The Atlas of World Population History_, London, 1978, pp. 168-169. [Overholt93] Overholt, William H. _The Rise of China: How Economic Reform is Creating a New Superpower_, New York, 1993, pp. 103, 105. [Partridge66] Partridge, Eric. _Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English_, New York, 1966, p. 719. [Southerland88] Southerland, Daniel. `Tibetan Tells of Torture: Monk Says Chinese Abuse Prisoners in the Region,' _The Washington Post_, Washington, 6 Sept 1988, p. A23:1. [Southerland89] Southerland, Daniel. `The Panchen Lama, Religious Leader in Tibet, Dies 50,' _The Washington Post_, Washington, 30 Jan 1988, p. D4:1. [Strauss] Strauss, Robert. _Tibet--A Travel Survival Kit_, Berkeley, 1992, pp. 18-19. [Strib95] `Report: Hundreds Jailed, Tortured in Tibet,' _Star-Tribune_, Minneapolis, 30 May 1995, p. 4A. [Sun94] Sun, Lena H. `Ethnic Animosities Reborn as Chinese Traders Flood Tibet,' _The Washington Post_, Washington, 15 Sept 1994, p. A27:1. [Schwartz] Schwartz, Ronald D. _Circle of Protest: Political Ritual in the Tibetan Uprising_, New York, 1994, pp. 160-61. [Tibet95] Tibet Support Group UK. _New Majority Chinese Population Transfer into Tibet_, London, 1995. [US Census94] U.S. Bureau of the Census. _Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1994_, Washington, 1994, tables 696, 1375. [Walt1] Walt van Praag, Michael C. van. _The Status of Tibet: History, Rights and Prospects in International Law_, Boulder, 1987, pp. 287- 288. [Walt2] Ibid. p. 79. [Walt3] Ibid. p. 196. The quote is from a speech Solzhenitsyn made in Tokyo. [Walt4] Ibid. p. 318. [Walt5] Ibid. p. 112. [Walt6] Ibid. p. 36. This example is from a telegram sent by the Qing Foreign Ministry to the Ambans in Lhasa in 1904. [Walt7] Ibid. p. 320. [World94] _World Almanac and Book of Facts: 1995_, New York, 1994, p. 833. [Yang75] Yang Shou-ching. _Li Tai Yu Ti Yen Ko T`u_, Taipei, 1975, Vol 1, pp. 13-71. This atlas was originally published in 1879 as _Li Tai Yu Ti Yen Ko Hsien Yao Tu_. Peter Kauffner Copyright 1994, 1995 Minneapolis, Minnesota Peter.Kauffner@tclbbs.com `There are many great nations on this earth who have achieved unprecedented wealth and might, but there is only one nation which is dedicated to the well- being of humanity and that is the religious land of Tibet, which cherishes a joint spiritual and temporal system.'--resolution of the Tibetan National Assembly, 1946