PRINCIPLES OF MUSICAL ANALYSIS We have all along been employing the chief principle of musical analysis, which is simply to make observations about constituent elements of a piece of music. Of course, this may not always be such a simple matter, since prior assumptions, misleading appear- ances, overlooking some detail, or a whole host of other subtle factors may impede the accuracy of our observations. Nonetheless, analysis, at its most straightforward level, is a matter of making observations, attempting to be as accurate as possible in simply and clearly stating what is presented to the senses. At this level, one is collecting data. At the same time, we begin to compare one datum with another, and in this process analysis-as-observation attains a new level. Observation is not only made of constituent parts within a whole. We then attempt to comprehend how those parts are organized into patterns which constitute the whole. Musical analysis is fundamentally an act of pattern recognition. And this is seemingly a natural activity of the human brain. The primary goal of such activity is to achieve a higher degree of understanding of the subject under analysis. The chief means by which this greater understanding is achieved is through the paying of attention to details. The more detail we can take in, while not losing sight of the whole, the closer we can be to the inner workings of music. Then as we "map" out the patterns which make up the whole, we may arrive at insights about how a given piece of music works. While the map is never the territory, the process of mapping, of laying down a template, does provide a means for better making our way around the terrain. DIVISION OF THE WHOLE INTO PARTS The initial step in analysis is to experience an entire entity. This may mean a whole work, as in a multi-movement symphony, a one-movement piece, as in a folk or pop song, or even a segment of a larger work which has the sense of being more or less complete. Listen to the "Ode to Joy" segment of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, which can be extracted from that larger work as an entity onto itself. I recommend a simple procedure of diagramming music which begins first of all with presenting an image of the whole structure under investigation: The next step is to "map" the major subdivisions of the whole struc- ture. This involves perceiving where the primary inception points are in relation to the primary goal areas. The goal areas may be easist to perceive in that that are cadences (literally, "to fall"), instants of relative repose. There is a sense here of arrival. Quite obviously, the strongest cadence is almost inevitably going to be the final notes, the goal of the whole piece. In tonal music, this is most certainly going to be an arrival on the tonic (I) note or chord. Interior cadences will be less strong, though themselves having a distinct sense of arrival. Any material following a cadence (and definitely the very first notes), will sound like some form of beginning, an inception. Depending on the length of the music under investigation, observation of the next level "down" from the whole will reveal either sectional division or phrase division. In the Beethoven there are 4 distinct cadences (including the final) which constitute the largest divisional segments of the whole. Once the areas from inception to goal have been mapped, comparison of one section to another will reveal relatedness of material. The Beethoven is clearly divided into 4 segments, with the 1st, 2nd, and 4th segments containing nearly identical material and the 3rd section containing material which contrasts with these. A reasonable labelling procedure entails associating letters of the alphabet with sections. The "Ode to Joy" could thus be described as AA'BA', with the 2nd and 4th sections indicated with the "prime" mark to represent the slight change from the original "A." And since the 2nd cadence is stronger then the first (because of its arrival on the tonic note), the AA' section could be considered as a section grouping and labelled as a larger "A." The overall form may thus be ABA: There is another way of viewing this structure, however. Because of the clear balance of measures, the second 8 measures (BA') might be grouped as an entity, thus making a two-part structure which could conceivably be labelled AA'. This kind of ambiguity is common in making an attempt to pin down the details of patterning. The interplay between a sense of 3-part and 2-part organization produces an overall asymmetry which may be a factor contributing to the effectiveness of this very simple and straightforward piece. This kind of structural analysis reveals groupings of events which have been traditionally designated as phrases. A musical phrase, to quote Douglas Green in his "Form in Tonal Music" may be defined as "the shortest passage of music which, having reached a point of relative repose, has expressed a more or less complete musical thought." The qualifying terms here are very important, for the strength of cadences is relative, and the sense of wholeness is relative. This is certainly made clear by the Beethoven example. The first cadence in measure 4 is not as strong as that in measure 8, and the final cadence is the strongest of all. DETAILS OF MELODIC SHAPING Mapping the overall structure of a piece of music provides insights into its sense of direction. A proper understanding of phrase struc- ture can aid the performer to think ahead to goal areas and to give them their proper emphasis. Composers can likewise gain understanding of how to shape their own creations to best effect. Just as an entire structure can be divided into sub-entities, so may those parts be divided. Examination of the details of the very first phrase or two may generate further insights into the music's workings. There are at least four significant aspects of organization here. The first is the coherency of pitch relationship. All adjacent pitches are no more than an interval of a second. In melodies, this deploy- ment of pitches is called "conjunct." Conjunct motion is a natural outgrowth of vocal music because it is the easiest to remember and sing. It contributes to creating unity. Melodic intervals larger than a second are called "disjunct," and their use contributes to creating variety. We might question the balance of unity versus variety in this passage, since there are no disjunct intervals, but further in- vestigation uncovers other factors at work which may establish a better balance. The second significant aspect of organization here is choice of pitches occurring on strong beats versus those falling on weak beats. Those on strong beats (beats 1 and 3 in a 4-beat measure) outline the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of a D-major scale. As we'll discuss in the greater detail in the chapter on harmony, this is the tonic chord, and it must in some way be given emphasis within the first few measures in order to thor- oughly establish the key center. That the first 4 measures cadence on a pitch not contained within this chord is the chief reason we sense a need to hear more. Any pitch other than the tonic is unstable, un- resolved, in relation to the tonic. Only the tonic note and the tonic chord are wholly stable. The third significant detail here is the specific contour formed by the choice of pitches and the overall pitch range formed by this con- tour. Most traditional melodies flow upwards and downwards in more or less standard patterns. Many begin with the tonic note, ascend some distance (often to the 5th or 8va), then return back downwards to tonic. Some start with tonic, leap upwards and descend. Some start high and move downward. In this instance, the initial pitch is above the tonic, there is a movement upwards followed by descent to the tonic. Combining elements of contour with intervallic movement from pitch to pitch results in a melody's overall range. Here it is an interval of a 5th, from the tonic to the 5th scale degree, which further reinforces the sense of key orientation. The subtle rhythmic deployment is the fourth important detail. In what would otherwise be a dull, plodding rhythm, Beethoven has intro- duced two chief factors of variety. The most obvious is the simple shift from the straight quarter notes to the dotted-quarter/eighth at the end of the phrase. Listen to what a slight but significant difference it would make if only quarter notes were used: The other factor is the offsetting of the repeated notes, which con- tributes to extending the length of time the 1st, 3rd, and 5th are heard This also creates a very gentle syncopated effect "across" the bar-line, highlights the 5th and the 3rd and thus strengthens the movement to the tonic note at the conclusion of the second phrase. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION While we examine these details, we may also observe relationships between one little idea and another. Quite clearly, the opening upward gesture (F#-G-A) is a unit which in some ways could be considered the "cell" from which the rest of the tune grows. The second measure pre- sents this cell in reverse order and "straightens out" the repeat, thus extending it one note downwards. We could consider this relation- ship either a mirror image or a retrograde (backwards). This kind of correspondance contributes to unity at the same as as to variety. The second measure is a form of varied repetition of the first. The 3rd measure re-initiates the same contour at a lower pitch level. This is likewise a form of varied repetition, specificically called "sequence." Of course, it doesn't last very long here, otherwise we would be carried beyond the tonic note. It appears that cellular ideas, 3- or 4-note gestures, grow into parts of phrases, and these parts of phrases grow into larger en- ties, the phrases themselves. Phrases combine to make sections, and sections are joined to form entire works. There is, in fact, and entire branch of traditional music theory, form and analysis, devoted to studying these relationships and to labelling one part in relation to another. And we could continue examining this simple tune, making ever new discoveries regarding relationship of parts. What, for instance, is the specific relationship of the 3rd phrase to the first? We know it is contrasting. Of the most obvious items, are the fact that this section contains the only instants or disjunct motion, and that it reaches the lowest pitch in the whole of the tune. Also it contains the only occurrances of consecutive 8th-notes. But are there factors linking it to the "A" section? Go back to page 3 and listen again to the whole tune and make your own observations about this! MUSICAL ANALYSIS Princlples of Analysis......................................p. 1 Divisions of the Whole into Parts...........................p. 3 Details of Melodic Sharping.................................p. 7 Cellular Organization.......................................p. 13