NOTE: This file is set up as a text-only (no formatting) version of the file that is used to generate the print copy of this document. This file was generated in Microsoft Word (TM), which uses hidden-text codes to generate tables of contents and link in graphics. Codes used within this document include: period-c-period indicates an entry for the main table of contents. Colons are used after the code to indicate relative level within the contents outline. The highest level is simply period-c- period; the lowest level is period-c-period-colon-colon-colon. There are only four levels in the main table of contents. period-a-period indicates an entry for the table of contents in Appendix A. As with the main table of contents, colons are used to indicate the level within the contents outline. period-g-period indicates a linked graphic. In all cases, all of the information in the figure is also provided in text. (These codes have been spelled out here in full, rather than listed as they actually appear in the text, because they would be treated by the program as real, actual codes, and included in the respective tables of contents.) Making Software More Accessible for People with Disabilities A White Paper on the Design of Software Application Programs to Increase Their Accessibility for People with Disabilities Prepared by Gregg C. Vanderheiden Ph.D. Trace R&D Center University of Wisconsin-Madison in conjunction with Information Technology Foundation (formerly ADAPSO Foundation) as a resource document to software developers interested in increasing the accessibility of their application programs Release 1.2 June, 1992 This White Paper is designed to stimulate discussion on the design of more accessible application software, leading to the development of design guidelines for use by industry. Comments, corrections, input, ideas, and issues are solicited. Address comments to: Gregg C. Vanderheiden, Ph.D., Trace R & D Center, Dept of Industrial Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53705 (c) Copyright 1991 Board of Regents University of Wisconsin System NOTE: To facilitate this document's review and use, you are free to duplicate and disseminate it freely. You may also excerpt ideas and materials from it freely. Acknowledgement is appreciated but not required. However, some of the charts and concepts in this document are taken from other authors and publications. These are so marked, and separate permission must be sought directly from those authors or publications before use (apart from copying this whole document). Support for this work has been provided by the Information Technology Foundation (formerly ADAPSO ) and by the National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) of the US Department of Education under Grant #G00850036. The opinions expressed in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Information Technology Foundation, the General Services Administration (GSA) or the National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR). Table of Contents .Begin Table C. Introduction...............................................1 What Is Meant by Accessibility?..........................1 The Purpose of This White Paper..........................1 Part I: Why Make Application Software More Accessible?.....3 Part II: What Problems Do People with Disabilities Have? and Why?........................7 Disability has many facets...............................7 Visual Impairments.......................................8 Background............................................8 Functional Limitations Caused by Visual Impairments...8 Difficulties Using Computers and Software.............8 Access to Documentation...............................8 Hearing Impairments......................................9 Background............................................9 Functional Limitations Caused by Hearing Impairments..9 Access to Support Services............................9 Physical Impairments....................................10 Background...........................................10 Functional Limitations Caused by Physical Impairments10 Cognitive/Language Impairments..........................11 Background...........................................11 Functional Limitations Caused by Cognitive Impairments 11 Seizure Disorders.......................................12 Multiple Impairments....................................12 Part III: What is the Role of Standard Application Software Manufacturers in Computer Accessibility?.......13 Computer Accessibility: A Cooperative Undertaking.......13 The Role of the Hardware and Operating System Manufacturers......................................13 Role of Third-Party Access Manufacturers.............14 Role of Application Software Manufacturers...........15 Role of Systems Integrators..........................16 Selection of the Hardware / Operating System Platform........................................16 Selection of Standard Application Software.........17 Accessibility of Training Programs and Materials...17 Ability of Integrators to Set Up and Provide Maintenance for Their Systems.......17 Part IV: What Are Others Doing that Application Software Manufacturers Can Take Advantage Of? 19 Access Strategies for Individuals with Visual Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers)19 Low Vision...........................................19 Blind Access (also used by individuals with low vision)............................................20 Advanced Graphic Access Techniques (for GUIs)........20 Braille..............................................20 Input and Control Systems for People with Low Vision/Blindness...................................21 Access Strategies for Individuals with Hearing Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers)21 Access Strategies for Individuals with Physical i Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers)22 Modification to Standard Keyboard Devices............22 Alternate Input Techniques...........................24 Part V: What Should Application Software Manufacturers Do? -- Overview --..........................................25 1) Using an Open Systems Approach....................25 2) Cooperation with Access Utilities and Access Features in the Operating System........25 Using System Tools and Conventions/Standards.......25 Provide Software Access to Commands................25 3) Designing Software to Minimize the Skills and Abilities Needed to Operate It.................26 4) Providing More Accessible Documentation and Training...........................................26 Electronic Documentation...........................26 Print Documentation................................27 Training...........................................27 5) Product Testing with Access Software and Hardware.28 6) Provision of Special Customer Support Lines or Specialists........................................28 7) Provision of Special Developer Support Lines or Contact People for Third-Party Manufacturers of Access Software and Hardware.......................29 Appendix A Initial Listing of Specific Techniques for Increasing the Accessibility of Application Software31 Appendix B Resources Available to Help.............................41 Appendix C A Collection of General Notes on Accessibility (with specific comments in relation to Computers and Application Software).....................45 .End Table C. ii .c.Introduction A variety of federal and state legislative actions, not the least of which is the Americans with Disabilities Act, have combined with public sentiment resulting in increasing emphasis on accessibility. In concert with this movement, the software industry has been asked to make its products more accessible to people with disabilities. This has raised questions among the members of this industry as to what exactly the problems are, and what specific types of steps they can take to help make their products more accessible. This paper is a first step in an effort sponsored by the software industry to create materials for themselves which will help to address these questions. Since the industry contains both advocates and skeptics, and individuals who are knowledgeable in this area and those to whom this is entirely new, this document serves several purposes. First, it is a mechanism for those who have knowledge to collect and present that information which is known. Second, it is a mechanism to document the rationale and importance of software accessibility. Third and most important, it is a means to disseminate information to and among designers and policy makers within industry to help them better understand the problem and what they can do to help ensure that their products are more accessible. .c.:What Is Meant by Accessibility? Accessibility refers to the ability of products and environments to be used by people. In this particular context, accessibility is used to refer to the ability of standard application software to be accessed and used by people with disabilities. Although the way people access the software may vary, a program is accessible to an individual if the individual is able to use it to carry out all of the same functions and to achieve the same results as individuals with similar skills and training who do not have a disability. (For a further discussion of accessibility, see Appendix C.) .c.:The Purpose of This White Paper This particular document is targeted toward application software developers. However, it is not possible to make applications more accessible unless the basic hardware platforms on which they are running also include accessibility features. Thus, understanding "application software accessibility issues" requires an understanding of the roles that computer manufacturers, operating system manufacturers, and third-party accessibility developers all play in making computer systems more accessible. A key point of this document, therefore, is to examine the overall accessibility issue, and separate those aspects which must be addressed by others (hardware manufacturers or third-party assistive device manufacturers) from those issues which must be addressed by the application software manufacturers, so that application software manufacturers can more clearly understand their role in this area. To achieve these objectives, this overall paper is organized into five sections, centered around the following questions: I. Why make application software more accessible? 1 II. What problems do people with disabilities have? and why? III. What is the role of manufacturers of standard application software? How does it relate to the role of computer manufacturers; of operating system manufacturers; and of third- party assistive device manufacturers? IV. What are manufacturers of computers, operating system and special devices doing that application software manufacturers can take advantage of? V. What could application software manufacturers be doing (overview)? These are followed by four appendices: Appendix A: Specific guidelines for the design of standard application software that would increase its accessibility Appendix B: Resources are available to help Appendix C: A Collection of General Notes on Accessibility Appendix D: Section 508 Procurement Guidelines This paper represents the beginning of a process to compile a document (a software design guideline) to address these and related questions. Input to this industry/researcher/consumer cooperative effort is sought from all interested parties. Anyone can participate in the process by marking up and returning a copy of this paper or submitting additional comments, problems, or ideas. This cooperative effort is sponsored by the Information Technology Foundation, a non-profit foundation of the Information Technology Association of America (formerly ADAPSO), a trade association which includes software manufacturers, and by the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR) of the U.S. Office of Education. The effort is headquartered at the Trace Research and Development Center of the Waisman Center and Industrial Engineering Department at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. NOTE: The opinions expressed in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect an official position of the Information Technology Foundation, the General Services Administration (GSA) or the National Institute for Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR). 2 .c."Part I: Why Make Application Software More Accessible? There are many reasons for a company to consider making their applications more accessible. They include: 1) One in ten citizens has a disability of some type. It is estimated that seven to nine out of every ten major corporations employ individuals with disabilities who may need to access software as a part of their job. There are between thirty and forty million people in the United States who have disabilities which affect their ability to use computers and application software. At the same time, computers are becoming integral parts of our living, educational and working environments. As a result, there is a growing concern that if computers, operating systems and application software are not accessible to this fairly large portion of our population, they will be unable to participate effectively in these environments. 2) Our population is rapidly aging. The number of individuals with disabilities or who have functional limitations is continually growing. Every year, this population includes more and more computer users. The population is steadily growing older. As we age, most of us lose some of our physical, sensory, or mental abilities. By age 55, 25% of us will experience functional limitations (see Figure 1). By age 65, this percentage will rise to 50%. For the growing number of us who will live to be 70 years old or older, 75% will experience functional impairments. In fifty years, it is estimated that more than a third of the population will be over age 55 and a sixth will be over 70 (based on US Congress Office of Technology Assessment OTA-BA-264). .G.FIGURE1.TIF;3.75";3.088";TIFF Figure 1 shows a series of 8 pie charts, each representing an age group and the percentage having functional limitations or severe functional limitations: 15-24 years: 1% with functional limitations; minimal with severe limitations 25-34 years: 7.5% with functional limitations, 2% with severe limitations 35-44 years: 13.4% with functional limitations, 3% with severe limitations 45-54 years: 23% with functional limitations, 6% with severe limitations 55-64 years: 34.2% with functional limitations, 12% with severe limitations 65-69 years: 45.4% with functional limitations, 18.5% with severe limitations 70-74 years: 55.3% with functional limitations, 22% with severe limitations 75+ years: 72.5% with functional limitations, 41% with severe limitations 3) Standard software which is designed to be usable by individuals with performance limitations is also usually easier to use by 3 everyone else. Curbcuts were put into sidewalk street corners for people in wheelchairs, but for every one person in a wheelchair who use these curbcuts, there are ten individuals with bicycles, carts, baby strollers, etc. who use the curbcut. Similarly, the adaptations to software for people with disabilities that make the software easier to see on the screen, operate from the keyboard, understand, etc., also make the software easier to use quickly, efficiently, and without errors for individuals who do not have disabilities. One example is MouseKeys, a feature that was added to operating systems to allow people who cannot use a mouse to move the mouse cursor from the keyboard. This feature is also commonly used by people doing graphics layout to make fine adjustments in graphic positioning, because it allows precise, pixel-by-pixel movement from the keyboard which is not possible using the standard mouse. 4) Software compatible with accessibility software is usually also more compatible with software extensions and to cross-program scripting utilities. Some of the principle strategies for making application software more compatible with disability access software include: - doing things in the standard fashion (i.e., following user interface guidelines), - using system tools, - supporting inter-application communications and other means for one piece of software to issue commands to, and extract information from, another application program. These also make the program more compatible with other nondisability-related system extensions and inter-application macro and scripting utilities. 5) The Federal government is interested in software applications that are more accessible and "accessibility aid friendly." Some of this interest is backed by legislation. Among the legislative efforts is Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act. This mandates the General Services Administration of the U.S. Government to work with the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research to develop guidelines for the purchase of computers and other electronic office equipment in order to ensure that the equipment purchased by the Government is accessible to its employees with disabilities. The text of Section 508 is provided in Figure 2. A copy of the 508 related regulations and guidelines is included in appendix D. At the present time, the GSA Guidelines describe features that would be desirable in computers and operating systems. Discussions are underway, however, regarding an extension of the GSA Guidelines to include application software, to make sure that applications cooperate with access features being built into the operating systems as well as lending themselves to access and use by people with disabilities. This White Paper reflects these discussions, and provides industry with a mechanism for participating in the exploration and discussion of these topics as well. Review, comment, and feedback on this White Paper and subsequent cooperative Industry Design Guidelines can help provide guidance to others in industry interested in this area. Also, in that interested people within the government also receive and review this document it can act as a means of communication and input to government processes and deliberations on this 4 topic as well. The recently enacted Americans with Disabilities Act requires that companies make their work environments more accessible to individuals with disabilities. As a result, not only the Federal government but the public sector and private companies will be increasingly interested in software application programs which are more accessible and work well with existing and future special access features and accessories. Figure 2 Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act Sect. 508. Electronic Equipment Accessibility (a) (1) The Secretary, through the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research and the Administration of the General Services, in consultation with the electronics industry, shall develop and establish guidelines for electronic office equipment accessibility designed to insure that handicapped individuals may use electronic office equipment with or without special peripherals. (2) The guidelines established pursuant to paragraph (1) shall be applicable with respect to electronic equipment, whether purchased or leased. (3) The initial guidelines shall be established not later than October 1, 1987, and shall be periodically revised as technologies advance or change. (b) Beginning after September 30, 1988, the Administrator of General Services shall adopt guidelines for electronic equipment accessibility established under subsection (a) for Federal procurement of electronic equipment. Each agency shall comply with the guidelines adopted under this subsection. (c) For the purpose of this section, the term special peripherals means a special needs aid that provides access to electronic equipment that is otherwise inaccessible to a handicapped individual. 6) It usually adds little and sometimes nothing to manufacturing costs for a product. The bulk of all accessibility design features cost little or nothing once they are included in the basic design of the product. For software products the difference in manufacturing costs is often zero. In exchange, the products are usually easier for everyone to use and the products are applicable to a wider market. 7) It's the appropriate thing to do. The ability of people with disabilities to work, receive an education, or even access information and other services from their homes, is rapidly becoming dependent upon their ability to access and use computers. If computers and application programs are not accessible, then individuals with disabilities will not be able to participate in education, employment, or daily living. It isn't appropriate to design software that cuts off that many people from such an important area when more accessible software costs no more to manufacturer and is generally faster, easier, less fatiguing, and less error-prone to use for everyone. 5 In summary: If properly done, making software more accessible: - usually adds little or nothing to the cost to manufacture - provides new insights into improved human interface design - increases the market for the product - brings products into compliance with current and anticipated government purchasing requirements - allows most people to access and use the software in employment, education, and home. 6 (This page left intentionally blank to facilitate double-sided copying) 7 .c."Part II: What Problems Do People with Disabilities Have? and Why? .c.:Disability has many facets First, it is important to understand that there are many different types and severities of impairment which lead to disabilities. Some types of impairment are: visual impairment hearing impairment movement impairment cognitive/language impairment seizure disorders Within each of these major types, there are many variations and degrees of impairment. Each of these may present different barriers and need to be addressed with different strategies. - Someone with a moderate visual impairment may need some mechanism to enlarge the image on the screen. - Someone with a severe visual impairment or who is blind would find screen enlargement to be of no value and would need mechanisms to translate the contents of the screen to speech or braille. - An individual with a mild hearing impairment may just need a mechanism to increase the volume. - An individual with a severe hearing impairment or who is deaf may need to have auditory information presented in some visual form. - An individual with a mild physical impairment may just need to have the behavior of the keyboard and mouse changed slightly in order for them to be able to effectively use the computer. - An individual with a more severe physical impairment may need to have a special keyboard that can be operated by speech, headpointing or eyegaze. The following pages provide a brief overview of the major types of impairments, along with a brief discussion of the implications of these impairments on computer use. PLEASE NOTE: It is not up to the application software developer/ manufacturer to directly meet all of these needs. Part III will discuss the role of application program manufacturers versus the role of others in providing accessibility. It is important, however, for everyone to 8 understand the basic problems faced by people with different types or degrees of impairment and their resulting disabilities. 9 .c.:Visual Impairments .c.::Background Visual impairment represents a continuum, from very poor vision, to people who can see light but no shapes, to people who have no perception of light at all. However, for general discussion it is useful to think of this population as representing two broad groups: those with low vision and those who are legally blind. The National Society for the Prevention of Blindness estimates that there are 11 million people in the U.S. who have visual impairments. This includes both people with low vision and those who are blind. Low vision is defined as vision that is between 20/40 and 20/200 after correction. (20/200 means that something at 20 feet would be just as visible as something at 200 feet would be to someone with normal 20/20 vision) There are 9-10 million people with low vision. Some of these can read print if it is large and held close (or viewed through a magnifier). Others can only use their sight to detect large shapes, colors or contrasts. There are approximately 1.2 million people with severe visual impairments who are not legally blind. A person is termed legally blind when their visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is 20/200 or worse after correction, or when their field of vision is less than 20 degrees. There are approximately half a million people in the U.S. who are legally blind. Blindness can be present at birth, acquired through illness or accident, or associated with aging (glaucoma, cataracts, macular degeneration, optic nerve atrophy, diabetic retinopathy). According to the American Foundation for the Blind, almost 1 person in every 1,000 under age 45 has a visual impairment of some type, while 1 in every 13 individuals older than 65 has a visual impairment which cannot be corrected with glasses. With current demographic trends toward a larger proportion of elderly, the prevalence of visual impairments will certainly increase. .c.::Functional Limitations Caused by Visual Impairments Functional limitations of people with visual impairments include increased sensitivity to glare, viewing the world as through a yellowed lens, no central vision, no peripheral vision, loss of visual acuity or focus, poor night vision, reduced color distinction ability or a general hazing of all vision. Those who are legally blind may still retain some perception of shape and contrast or of light vs. dark (the ability to locate a light source), or they may be totally blind (having no awareness of environmental light). .c.::Difficulties Using Computers and Software As would be expected, people with visual impairments have the greatest problem with information displayed on the screen. However, mandatory use of a mouse or other pointing device requiring eye-hand coordination is also a problem. Special programs exist to provide individuals with the ability to magnify the screen image. There are also programs which allow the individual to have the content of the screen read aloud. However, application programs sometimes do things in ways that make it difficult or impossible for these special programs to work well or at all. Individuals with low vision may also miss messages which pop up at different points on the screen, since their attention is usually focused on only a small area of the screen at any time. .c.::Access to Documentation 10 Written operating instructions and other documentation may also be inaccessible if they are not provided in electronic or alternate form (e.g., audio tape or braille) and even then people may have difficulty accessing graphic or pictorial information included in documentation. Because many people with visual impairments still have some visual capability, many of them can read with the assistance of magnifiers, bright lighting (for printed text), and glare reducers. Many are helped immensely by use of larger lettering, sans-serif typefaces, and high contrast coloring. Key coping strategies for those who are blind or have severe visual impairments include the use of braille, large raised lettering or raised line drawings, braille and audio tape. Note, however, that braille is preferred by only about 10% of people who are blind (normally those blind from early in life). Those who use braille, however, usually have strong preferences for it, especially for shorter documents. Raised lettering must be large and is therefore better for providing simple labels on raised line drawings than for extensive text. 11 .c.:Hearing Impairments .c.::Background Hearing impairments are among the most prevalent chronic disabilities in the U.S. More than 15 million people have some form of hearing impairment. Almost two million are deaf. Hearing impairments are classified into degrees based on the average hearing level for various frequencies (pitches) by decibels (volume) required to hear, and also by the ability to understand speech. Loudness of normal conversation is usually 40-60 decibels. A person is considered deaf when sound must reach at least 90 decibels (5-10 times louder than normal speech) to be heard, and even amplified speech cannot be understood, even with a hearing aid. Hearing impairments can be found in all age groups, but loss of hearing acuity is part of the natural aging process. Of those aged 65 to 74, 23% have hearing impairments, while almost 40% over age 75 have hearing impairments. The number of individuals with hearing impairments will increase with the increasing age of the population and the increase in the severity of noise exposure. Hearing impairment may be sensorineural or conductive. Sensorineural involves damage to the nerves used in hearing (i.e., the problem is in transfer from ear to brain). Causes include aging, exposure to noise, trauma, infection, tumors and other disease. Conductive hearing loss is caused by damage to the ear canal and mechanical parts of the inner ear. Causes include birth defects, trauma, foreign bodies or tumors. .c.::Functional Limitations Caused by Hearing Impairments The functional limitations faced by people with hearing impairment fall into four categories. First, individuals may not be able to hear auditory information if it is not presented loudly enough as compared to the background noise. The ability to control volume or to plug headphones or other devices into a headphone jack are the primary strategies for dealing with this problem. Second, individuals who are deaf or who have more severe hearing impairments will not receive any information which is presented only in auditory form. Beeps which are accompanied by an on-screen visual indication prevent this problem. They also avoid the problem of the sound output being too quiet, since the auditory information is also provided visually. With newer systems which include voice output, presentation of the text on-screen or the ability to turn on captions may be necessary. Third, as voice input becomes more prevalent, it too will present a problem for many deaf individuals. While many have some residual speech, which they work to maintain, those who are deaf from birth or a very early age often are unable to learn to speak or have very poor speech. Thus, alternatives to voice input will be necessary for these individuals to access products which require voice input. Fourth, many individuals who are deaf communicate primarily through ASL (American Sign Language). It should be noted, however, that this is a completely different language from English. Thus, deaf people who primarily use ASL may understand English only as a second language (and may therefore not be as proficient with English as native speakers). 12 .c.::Access to Support Services Because individuals who are deaf cannot hear and sometimes cannot speak, they have difficulty using telephone support services. Special telecommunication devices for the deaf (TDDs) have been developed, however, which allow individuals to communicate over the phone using text and a modem. In order for these users to access phone-in support services, software companies would need to have TDD-equipped support personnel. Individuals who are deaf are also be unable to take advantage of support systems that use touch-tone input and recorded voice output. 13 .c.:Physical Impairments .c.::Background Physical impairments vary greatly. They include paralysis (complete or partial), severe weakness, interference with control, missing limbs, and speech impairment. Causes include cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury, traumatic head injury (includes stroke), injuries or diseases resulting in amputation, or various diseases such as arthritis, ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease), multiple sclerosis or muscular dystrophy. Cerebral Palsy (CP). CP is defined as damage to the motor areas of the brain prior to brain maturity (in most cases, this occurs before, during or shortly after birth). There are 400,000-700,000 individuals in the U.S. with CP. The most common types are spastic, where the muscles are tense and contracted and voluntary movement is very difficult, and athetoid, where there is constant, uncontrolled motion. Most cases are combinations of the two types. Spinal Cord Injury. Spinal cord injury can result in paralysis or paresis (weakening). The extent of paralysis/paresis and the parts of the body effected are determined by how high or low on the spine the damage occurs and the type of damage to the cord. Quadriplegia involves all four limbs and is caused by injury to the cervical (upper) region of the spine; paraplegia involves only the lower extremities. There are 150,000 to 175,000 people with spinal cord injuries in the U.S. Head Injury and Stroke. The term "head injury" is used to describe a huge array of injuries, including concussion, brain stem injury, closed head injury, cerebral hemorrhage, depressed skull fracture, foreign object (e.g., bullet), anoxia, and post-operative infections. Like spinal cord injuries, head injury and also stroke often results in paralysis and paresis, but there can be a variety of other effects as well. Currently about 1,000,000 Americans (1 in 250) suffer from effects of head injuries, and over 2,000,000 people in the U.S. have suffered strokes. However, many of these do not have permanent or severe disabilities. Arthritis. Arthritis is defined as pain in joints, usually reducing range of motion and causing weakness. Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic syndrome. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disease. About 1% of the U.S. population (or 2.4 million people) are affected by arthritis. ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease). ALS is a fatal degenerative disease of the central nervous system characterized by slowly progressive paralysis of the voluntary muscles. The major symptom is progressive muscle weakness involving the limbs, trunk, breathing muscles, throat and tongue, leading to partial paralysis and severe speech diffi- culties. This is not a rare disease. About 2 out of 125,000 people will develop ALS each year. It strikes mostly those between age 40 and 70, and men twice as often as women. Multiple Sclerosis (MS). MS is defined as a progressive disease of the central nervous system characterized by the destruction of the insulating material covering nerve fibers. The problems these individuals experience include poor muscle control, weakness and fatigue, difficulty walking, talking, seeing, sensing or grasping objects. It is estimated that about 300,000 in the U.S. suffer from this disease. 14 Muscular Dystrophy (MD). MD is a hereditary, progressive condition resulting in muscular weakness and loss of control, contractions and difficulty in walking and breathing. About 10,000 new cases are reported per year. .c.::Functional Limitations Caused by Physical Impairments Problems faced by individuals with physical impairments include poor muscle control, weakness and fatigue, difficulty talking, seeing, sensing or grasping (due to pain or weakness), difficulty reaching things, and difficulty doing complex or compound manipulations (push and turn). Individuals with spinal cord injuries may be unable to use their limbs and may use "mouthsticks" for most manipulations. Individuals with movement impairments may have difficulty with programs which require a response in a specified period of time, especially if it is short. Individuals with impaired movement or who must use a mouthstick or headstick have difficulty in using pointing devices. Programs which require the use of a mouse or pointing devices and have no option for keyboard control of the program present problems. Individuals who can use only one hand or who use a headstick or mouthstick to operate the keyboard have difficulty pressing two keys at the same time. 15 .c.:Cognitive/Language Impairments .c.::Background This category contains a wide range of impairments including impairments of thinking, memory, language, learning and perception. Causes include birth defects, head injuries, stroke, diseases and aging-related conditions. Some commonly known types and causes of cognitive/language impairment are: Mental Retardation. A person is considered mentally retarded if they have an IQ below 70 (average IQ is 100) and if they have difficulty functioning independently. An estimated 1% of Americans (2.4 million) are mentally retarded. For most, the cause is unknown, although infections, Down's Syndrome, premature birth, birth trauma, or lack of oxygen may all cause retardation. Those considered mildly retarded (80-85%) have an IQ between 55 and 69 and achieve 4th to 7th grade levels. They usually function well in the community and can hold down semi-skilled and unskilled jobs. Language and Learning Disabilities. This is a general term referring to a wide range of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, and calculating/integrating perceptual/cognitive information. These disorders are presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction. It is estimated that over 43% of children in special education programs in the U.S. (1.9 million) have some type of language and learning disability. Head Injury and Stroke. This group includes individuals with closed and open head injuries as well as those suffering strokes. These injuries usually result in physical impairments, cognitive impairments or both. There are approximately 400,000 to 600,000 people with head injuries and approximately 2 million people who have suffered a stroke. Alzheimer's Disease. This is a degenerative disease that leads to progressive intellectual decline, confusion and disorientation. 5% of Americans over 65 have Alzheimer's; 20% of those above 80 have it. Dementia. This is a brain disease that results in the progressive loss of mental functions, often beginning with memory, learning, attention and judgment deficits. The underlying cause is obstruction of blood flow to the brain. Some kinds of dementia are curable, while others are not. 5% of the population over 65 has severe dementia, with 10% having mild or moderate impairment. 30% of those over 85 are affected. .c.::Functional Limitations Caused by Cognitive Impairments Cognitive impairments are varied, but may be categorized as memory, perception, problem-solving, and conceptualizing disabilities. Memory problems include difficulty getting information from short-term storage (20-40 seconds, 5-10 items), long term and remote memory. This includes difficulty recognizing and retrieving information. Perception problems include difficulty taking in, attending to, and discriminating sensory information. Difficulties in problem solving include recognizing the problem, identifying, choosing and implementing solutions, and evaluation of outcome. Conceptual difficulties can include problems in sequencing, generalizing previously learned information, categorizing, cause and effect, abstract concepts, comprehension and skill development. Language im- pairments can cause difficulty in comprehension and/or expression of 16 written and/or spoken language. Problems can occur both in the use of software and in understanding manuals written at too high a technical/comprehension level. Approximately 1 million U.S. workers (age 18-69) report impaired abilities to read, reason and/or understand spoken or written information as a result of a chronic disabling condition. There are few assistive devices for people with cognitive impairments. Simple cuing aids or memory aids are sometimes used. As a rule, these individuals benefit from use of simple displays, low language loading, use of patterns, simple, obvious sequences and cued sequences. 17 .c.:Seizure Disorders A number of injuries or conditions can result in seizure disorders. Seizures can vary from momentary loss of attention to grand mal seizures which result in the severe loss of motor control and awareness. Seizures can be triggered in people with photosensitive epilepsy by rapidly flashing light, particularly in the 10-25 hz range. This can be caused by screen refresh or by rapidly flashing different images on the screen. The brighter the flash, and the larger the portion of the screen involved, the more significant the visual stimulation. Somewhere between 1 in 25,000 and 1 in 10,000 people in the US have seizure disorders. .c.:Multiple Impairments It is all too common to find that whatever caused a single type of impairment also caused others. This is particularly true where disease or trauma is severe, or in the case of impairments caused by aging. Diabetes, which can cause blindness, also often causes loss of sensation in the fingers. Unfortunately, this makes braille or raised lettering impossible to read. Cerebral palsy is accompanied by visual impairments in 40% of cases, by hearing and language disorders in 20% of cases, and by cognitive impairments in 60% of cases. Individuals who have hearing impairments caused by aging also often have visual impairments. 18 .c."Part III: What is the Role of Standard Application Software Manufacturers in Computer Accessibility? And how does it relate to the roles of... computer manufacturers? operating system manufacturers? third-party assistive device manufacturers? systems integrators? .c.:"Computer Accessibility: A Cooperative Undertaking As discussed in Part II, making computers and software more accessible is not the sole responsibility of application software vendors. Many aspects of computer access are best addressed by others, such as hardware vendors, operating system manufacturers, or third-party access product manufacturers. However, there are some components of accessibility that can only be addressed at the application software level. To understand the role of application software manufacturers, it is important to examine the roles of all parties involved in making computers accessible. Each party has its own unique role, and must work together to achieve computer accessibility: 1) Hardware and operating system manufacturers, 2) Third-party assistive device manufacturers, 3) Standard application software manufacturers, and 4) Systems integrators. .c.::The Role of the Hardware and Operating System Manufacturers As much as possible, the computer platform itself should be made directly accessible by people with disabilities. The computer "platform" is defined here as: a) the input, output, and media hardware (keyboards, monitors, disk drives) b) the input and output drivers which control behavior of the input/output devices c) the system software tools used by the applications for input, output, and program control 19 The hardware and operating system components may be produced by a single vendor or by separate companies. These components work together, however, to give the computer its basic operating characteristics and requirements. There are some accessibility features that can only be implemented at this level, and those that are will benefit all application software manufacturers by reducing the need to build these features over again in each application program. It is also of benefit to users in that there is a standard user interface and operating characteristics across programs. (See Part IV.) In many cases, particularly for individuals with mild or moderate disabilities, slight changes in the hardware or operating systems can make the computers directly and completely accessible without any further modification. Once these modifications are incorporated into the design of the hardware or software drivers, there is little or no additional manufacturing cost. This type of accessibility is called "direct accessibility," since it allows individuals with disabilities to use the computers directly as they come "from the box." This is the most cost-effective type of accessibility, and the most desirable, since it allows individuals who have disabilities to access and use the computers in the same fashion as anyone else. It also allows them to access and use the computers as they find them in educational, employment, or public environments without having to bring along and install special access software or hardware in order to use them (which is often difficult or impossible in public and some other environments). A second role for standard hardware and operating system manufacturers is to design the computer platform to facilitate the connection and use of special access tools (software and hardware) for individuals with more severe impairments where direct access is not possible (see next section). .c.::Role of Third-Party Access Manufacturers Although direct accessibility of computers is by far the best situation, the type or severity of some impairments precludes the ability to use computers "off the shelf" (even if the computers have been designed to include as many direct access features as practical). In these cases, special interfaces, software programs, or other accessories are required in order to allow the individuals to access and use the computers. The role of third-party or "special access" manufacturers is to develop the special hardware and software tools, and to make them available to people who require them. As noted above, standard hardware and operating system manufacturers can greatly facilitate this process by designing their hardware and operating system platforms to be compatible with the connection and use of such special access tools. While the use of special access products to access a computer is not as desirable as being able to directly access and use the computers, there is a need for and advantages to using third-party access products for some people, especially those with more severe disabilities. On one hand, individuals who have to rely on third- party access devices do not have the ability to just approach and use computers in libraries, laboratories, or employment situations. They must carry their special interfaces with them and be able to connect them to or load them onto these computers before they can use the 20 computers. On the other hand, third-party products which are targeted toward a particular disability can sometimes provide more powerful and efficient interfaces than could be efficiently built into a standard hardware/operating system. It is also sometimes necessary to incorporate additional hardware into the interface (e.g., a dynamic braille display) which would be impractical to incorporate into a standard computers design. Third-party access products are therefore important components in system accessibility, and the only practical approach for some individuals with severe or multiple impairments. Thus, both direct accessibility (wherever possible) and third-party access products (where built-in accessibility is not possible or is not efficient enough) are necessary to meet the broad range of needs of people with mild to severe disabilities. .c.::Role of Application Software Manufacturers The first two parties discussed (the standard platform manufacturers and the third-party special access manufacturers) can work together to overcome most of the access problems faced by people with disabilities. However, access to the computer and its operating system does not guarantee full access to application software, and running application programs is the only use of a computer for most people. Some aspects of the computer's behavior are completely in the control of the application software. Therefore, effective access to computers includes cooperation by the developers of application software. There are three general ways that manufacturers of application software can improve access to and usability of their programs. 1) Cooperate with other access features and utilities Not all information needed to operate the program is available at the system level. Cooperation by the application program is therefore necessary in order for standard or special access features to be effective. For example, most programs running on graphics operating system use the system tools to display their menus. Access features can thus be designed which attach themselves to the system tools and provide access to all of these menus. Occasionally, however, an application will create a custom menu or palette without using the standard system menu tools, or by using them for only part of the menu function. In this case, the special access features attached to the operating system would be unable to determine what the items in the special palette were in order to present them to the individual with the disability (e.g., if they were blind) and to allow the individual with a disability to choose from among them. 2) Tune the user interface to allow efficient use by people with different strengths In some cases, the standard access features built into the operating system may allow the person with a disability to use a program, but only in some round-about or inefficient manner. A slight change or option in the application program could substantially increase the efficiency with which individuals with disabilities could operate the program. Since the person with a disability has to compete with their able-bodied colleagues, the ability to operate the program efficiently can be important to their maintaining comparative productivity to 21 their colleagues. For example, dialog boxes and many interactive programs may have numerous buttons in them. An individual who can tab between the various buttons and fields would have access to the dialog box. However, this type of operation would be much slower than that of other users, who could simply click on the desired buttons to access them rather than having to tab around. Having the ability to type a command key to activate any button directly would greatly increase the speed with which a person with a disability (and anyone else whose hands were on the keyboard) could access and use these programs. 3) Make sure your program doesn't break or interfere with existing access features or utilities Application programs can unknowingly include features which cause standard or third-party access features to break, or just not work with that program or function of the program. Understanding what accessibility features exist and how they function can help to prevent this problem. It also makes the program generally more robust and compatible with other nondisability-related third-party add-on programs. For example, using nonstandard techniques for reading the keyboard, writing to the screen, or showing a cursor may be done for performance or other reasons, but could circumvent or break access software. Several major application programs now do this. 4) Testing your program for compatibility with 3rd party manufacturers of accessibility hardware and software In many cases they best means for providing access to persons with disabilities is through the use of 3rd party access devices or software. However the design or improvements to a program can cause incompatibility problems for these 3rd party access products leaving a person who depends on them without access to the computer or your software. Testing of your software for compatibility with major access software and hardware can prevent this problem. Providing advance copies of the software to 3rd party manufacturers for testing can also help avoid this problem if it is done early enough in the design cycle to allow for changes in the design to overcome incompatibilities For example, screen reading software programs used by people who are blind can be made partially or completely ineffective depending on how new features, menubars, toolbars, etc., are implemented. .c.::Role of Systems Integrators In addition to the three major players, there is sometimes a fourth player, the systems integrator, particularly in federal acquisitions. Since systems integrators do not usually create software or hardware, their role has not been well explored. However, for federal acquisitions, system integrators are often the individuals who select the hardware and software offered, and the individuals who provide the follow-up support. Their role in overall accessibility for offerings to the federal government is therefore substantial. Three key areas where systems integrators can have a major effect are: 22 a) the accessibility of the hardware and operating system platforms they select to use in their offerings, b) the accessibility of the application software they select to use in their offering (that is, - the software's compatibility with disability access; - the accessibility of software documentation; - support services provided by the software vendor for users with disabilities), c) the accessibility of their training programs and materials to government employees who have disabilities, and d) the ability of integrators to both set up and provide maintenance support for federal employees with disabilities who are using the hardware/software packages offered by the systems integrator. .c.:::Selection of the Hardware / Operating System Platform In the past, there have been many compatible hardware platforms, and system integrators could choose between different vendors in putting their packages together. This has not generally been true for operating systems. However, there is an increasing compatibility and inter-operability between operating systems. For example, there are three vendors who sell versions of DOS (Microsoft, IBM, and Digital Research), as well as other operating systems which allow DOS programs to be run within them (e.g., OS/2). Windows applications can be run within Windows, but can also be run within OS/2. This, combined with the increasing cross-platform compatibility of applications, is leading to a situation where systems integrators can begin to choose between both different hardware and different operating system vendors in putting together their packages. Since these different hardware platforms and, especially, different operating systems are beginning to differ in terms of their built-in accessibility features, system integrators can put together more or less accessible offerings to the government or other purchasers by selecting more (or less) accessible versions of the hardware and operating systems. .c.:::Selection of Standard Application Software Similarly, the increasing compatibility between applications, either directly or via translators, is providing much greater choice. Again, system integrators can provide a much more accessible package by selecting application software which is itself more accessible and compatible with the access strategies or aids. Selecting software which is more accessible will also greatly reduce the problems faced by systems integrators when trying to provide support to federal (and other) employees with disabilities who are using the systems integrator's package. It would both reduce the number of compatibility problems that would arise and, if the original application software vendors provided disability access support, provide the systems integrator with a better and lower-cost mechanism for addressing any compatibility problems that did arise. .c.:::Accessibility of Training Programs and Materials In addition to delivering the software and hardware, many systems integrators also provide training for the client's employees in the use of their products. Since the employees they will be training may have disabilities, the training materials and documentation used by the systems integrators would need to be accessible to these employees as well. Again, choosing hardware and software which already has accessible forms of documentation can greatly simplify the systems 23 integrator's work in this area. .c.:::Ability of Integrators to Set Up and Provide Maintenance for Their Systems In addition to the training they provide, systems integrators often provide continued support and maintenance for their systems after delivery. If some of their client's employees have disabilities, the systems integrators may need to provide support for these individuals as well (both those employed at the time of the bid and individuals with disabilities who are hired later). This may involve trouble- shooting systems provided by the system integrators or compatibility issues between existing access software and the package sold by the integrators. As previously discussed, the role of the systems integrator is not well understood, and points discussed here are therefore preliminary in nature. However, it is clear that the systems integrators will play a key role in determining the actual access that federal employees with disabilities will have to their computers and information processing environments. It is also clear that system integrators have major impact on which software packages are offered to the federal government for most of their packaged buys. Finally, it is clear that systems integrators cannot make the hardware and software in their packages more accessible or compatible with special access products from third-party vendors. They will have to rely upon selecting those hardware, operating system, and application software products which are most accessible and compatible with third-party access systems. NOTE: This White Paper is directed toward the accessibility issues as they relate to application software developers. There is a separate document, titled Considerations in the Design of Computers and Operating Systems to Increase Their Accessibility to Persons with Disabilities, which has been developed by and for hardware and operating system manufacturers. At present, there is no document tailored to the needs of systems integrators. Because of their key role in federal acquisitions, and the fact that they face different problems and questions in making the systems they offer more accessible, a separate tailored document should be developed to address their needs. 24 (this page intentionally left blank, to facilitate double-sided copying) 25 .c."Part IV: What Are Others Doing that Application Software Manufacturers Can Take Advantage Of? In the previous section, the roles of standard platform manufacturers and third-party special access manufacturers were described. The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of the access work of these two groups and how application software manufacturers can take advantage of this work to solve most of the access issues for their programs. A thorough understanding of this section is necessary in order for application software manufacturers to avoid duplicating effort and solving problems which are best solved at these other levels. It is also important for application software manufacturers to understand these strategies in order to be compatible with them and to understand the aspects of accessibility that are not covered by them. For the purposes of this discussion, the solution strategies which are provided both by the standard platform manufacturers and by third- party manufacturers are grouped together and presented by impairment area. .c.:Access Strategies for Individuals with Visual Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers) The access strategies used by people with visual impairments fall into two major categories: enlargement of the image on the screen, and presentation of visual information in some other form (e.g., speech or braille). People with low vision generally use both strategies, while people who are completely blind must rely on the second approach. (Please note: The strategies described below and on the following pages in this section are already provided (or will be) by computer manufacturers, operating systems, or third-party assistive device manufacturers. They are not features that application software designers need to add to their software; only things that they need to be aware of and to facilitate rather than obstruct.) .c.::Low Vision For individuals with mild to moderate visual impairments, the ability to enlarge the fonts (only) used on the screen may be all that is necessary. Within text-only documents, using "large type" is very straightforward, since most graphics-based programs allow the individual to select the font size to be used on-screen. Utilities also exist which allow one to use a slightly larger font in the system menus. This concept could be expanded to include larger cursors, scroll bars, etc. Simply enlarging the font used on the screen, however, only works for individuals needing moderate character enlargement. For individuals with low vision, the image on the screen must often be magnified 4-16 times. Also, the entire image on the screen needs to be enlarged, not just the alphanumeric characters. To do this, some type of overall 26 screen enlargement utility or program is required. These utilities or programs create a virtual image which is much bigger than the actual monitor screen. The monitor screen itself then becomes a "viewport" which can be moved about over the virtual screen. Using this technique, the individual can only see a small portion of overall screen at a time. (As a result, the effect is similar to a normally sighted person trying to use a computer while looking down a cardboard tube such as that found in a roll of paper towels.) Such screen enlargement utilities allow the individual to enlarge the text as much as they like (up to one character filling the entire screen). They usually also have a mechanism built in to allow the "viewport" to automatically follow the movement of the mouse or cursors as the individual types. Application developers should note that it is important for screen reading or enlargement access software to be able to identify events which occur in different areas of the screen. This is necessary so that the access software can automatically move the "viewport" to that point on the screen in order to avoid the user missing important events occurring outside of the viewport. It is also important to maintain a consistent screen layout. The user will then know where to find things such as prompts, status indicators, menus, etc. .c.::Blind Access (also used by individuals with low vision) For individuals who cannot read the image on the screen even when enlarged, some mechanism for presenting the information in nonvisual form is necessary. The two most common forms for doing this are speech and braille. Screen reading programs allow the individual to move about on the screen and have any text read aloud to them. In graphical environments with multiple windows, screen readers must also be able to allow the individual to navigate around between windows and among the different elements of a window (scroll bars, zoom boxes, window sizing controls, etc.). They must also provide the individual with a means to deal with icons and other graphic information. For stereotypic images which always appear the same, such as scroll bars and icons, names or labels can be given to each object or icon. When the icons are encountered, their names or labels can be read aloud. Application programs can facilitate or inhibit screen reading programs' ability to do this, however. For example, a tool bar which is drawn as a single graphic element cannot be easily deciphered by an access program. A tool bar where each tool is drawn using a separate draw command can be easily dissected, and the individual tool images extracted and named. .c.::Advanced Graphic Access Techniques (for GUIs) Screen reading programs which currently exist on the Macintosh and are being developed for OS/2 and Microsoft Windows are capable of providing full access to the basic operating system constructs (windows, menu bars, dialog boxes, etc.) as well as providing access to text within application program documents (as long as the text drawing tools of the operating system are used to create the text image). In order to access information which is drawing or picture- based (line drawings, charts and diagrams, floor plans, etc.), several advanced strategies are being explored. One approach involves the use of a virtual tactile tablet with a tactile puck/mouse. A vibrating tactile array of 100 pins is mounted on a special puck/mouse. As the mouse is moved about on the tablet, the tactile representation of the information on the screen is provided to the individual's fingertip. In this fashion, the individual can actually feel the information on the screen. Coupled with voice output screen reading features, this system allows the individual to feel the image on the screen and to have any words on 27 the screen read aloud. Other experimental techniques being examined are routines which would automatically recognize and describe verbally stereotypic information presentations formats (bar charts, pie charts, etc.) and routines which would provide special image enhancement (edge detection/enhancement, etc.) to make complex graphics simpler to tactually explore. .c.::Braille In addition to speech output, braille can also be used. Since braille is essentially a tactile alphabet, it can be used instead of speech to present the information to the user. Special displays of 20 or 40 braille cells with electromechanical moving pins can provide refreshable or dynamic braille displays that can be continually changed by the computer. As a result, anything that is printed in alphanumerics or which can be described in speech can be presented on a dynamic braille display. This is an effective and preferred means for accessing text by some people who are blind. For individuals who are deaf-blind, and can neither read the text on the screen nor hear spoken output, braille is essential for access. .c.::Input and Control Systems for People with Low Vision/Blindness In addition to problems in accessing the screen, individuals who are blind also have difficulty in using input devices which require vision. For example, some keyboards have electronically locking keys, such as the Num Lock, Scroll Lock, and Caps Lock keys on an IBM PC or compatible. Small lights are provided on the keyboard to allow people who can see to determine whether these keys are in their locked or unlocked mode. Individuals who are blind are unable to determine the status of these keys unless there is some visual indication provided on the screen where their screenreaders can access it. Some application programs provide this. In addition, some software utilities and most screen reading software provide some auditory cues to allow the individual who is blind to know whether these particular keys are in locked or unlocked mode. It is important for application software to use the status flags in the system and ensure that these flags and lights are set to agree with the program's use of these keys. A more serious problem for individuals who are blind is applications which require use of the mouse. The mouse by its very nature requires some type of eye-hand coordination. For individuals who are blind, this type of eye-hand coordination is impossible. Some blind access software packages provide mechanisms which automatically move the mouse cursor about the screen as they read or move between window elements. Another strategy which can provide some access to mouse- like operations is the use of the tactile mouse discussed above. For these access techniques to work within the application windows themselves, however, they may require some cooperation from the application program. .c.:Access Strategies for Individuals with Hearing Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers) Individuals with hearing impairments currently have little difficulty in using computers. Some computers, such as the Macintosh computers and the IBM PS/1, have volume controls and headphone jacks which allow the connection of headphones or amplifiers/speakers to facilitate 28 their use by individuals who have mild hearing impairments. For individuals who cannot hear, onscreen indication of beeps and other sounds can be provided. Currently, the Macintosh has a feature where the menu bar will flash whenever a sound is emitted if the volume control is turned to zero. IBM's new L40 SX laptop computer has a small LCD display which flashes a symbol of a speaker whenever a tone is emitted from the computer, thus providing a visual indication of the auditory sound. The AccessDOS package distributed by IBM also includes a feature called "ShowSounds" which provides a screen flash whenever the speaker on the computer is used. There are also other third-party products, such as SeeBeep, which provide visual indications on the screen when a sound is emitted from a PC. In addition, a system-wide "ShowSounds" switch is currently being advocated for all operating systems. By implementing the "ShowSounds" switch at the system level, the switch could be used by all application programs to determine if the user would like visual indication of any sounds made by the application programs. If an individual was in a noisy environment (such as an airplane or a factory) or had difficulty hearing, they could set the ShowSounds switch. The operating system and all applications which emitted sounds could then check that switch. If it were turned on, they would accompany any auditory sounds with some type of visual indication. Some applications already provide some type of visual indication to accompany many (but not all) sounds. If the ShowSounds switch were set, however, it would be an indication that all sound output should be accompanied by some type of visual indication. Implementation of the ShowSounds switch would also allow application programs to have closed captioning. That is, newer programs which include speech output could check for the ShowSounds switch and, if it were set, pop up a small window with the same text that was being spoken. Because this caption would only appear when the ShowSounds switch was set, it would be called a "closed caption." Similarly, if other auditory information were presented which was necessary for the operation of the program, a small indicator or caption describing the sound could be presented if the ShowSounds switch were set. This descriptor of the sound should preferably be text rather than an icon, in order to facilitate access by individuals who are deaf-blind and using a screen reading program (using braille) to present the information to them. As software packages move toward more multi-media presentations, the ability of application software to provide closed-captioning will increase in importance. NOTES: - The ShowSounds switch does not currently exist within standard operating systems. However, discussions are ongoing with the major operating system manufacturers to include the switch in future releases of their operating systems. - The ShowSounds switch should not be tied to the volume control. In many cases, the ShowSounds feature would be used in addition to sound output. - The ShowSounds switch when implemented on a systems level should not automatically cause all sound events to trigger a visual event (as is true for the rudimentary ShowSounds in AccessDOS). The software or system emitting the sound should check the status of the switch and create a visual effect only if appropriate (e.g., not if just playing background music), and only in an appropriate form (e.g., don't just keep flickering the screen if the program is talking; put up text instead). 29 .c.:Access Strategies for Individuals with Physical Impairments (Available via Platform or Third-party Manufacturers) Problems faced by individuals with physical impairments vary widely. Some individuals are very weak, and have limited range of motion. Other individuals, such as those with cerebral palsy, have erratic motor control. Some individuals have missing or paralyzed limbs, while others, such as those with arthritis, have limited manipulative and grasping ability. People with physical impairments can have difficulty manipulating media, carrying out quick actions, operating input devices requiring fine motor control, and pressing multiple keys or buttons at the same time. Access strategies can be broken down into roughly three categories: 1) Modifications to the way the standard input devices (e.g., keyboard and mouse) work 2) Alternate input techniques which replace the standard input devices 3) Modifications to facilitate manipulation of controls and media (disks, etc.) .c.::Modification to Standard Keyboard Devices Some individuals are unable to use the standard keyboard, but could use it if it behaved slightly differently. A number of standard modifications are now available which allow the user to modify the way a standard keyboard works in order for it to function better for people with disabilities. Four examples of keyboards modifications are StickyKeys, SlowKeys, BounceKeys and RepeatKeys. Many of these features (and others) are now distributed by the major computer companies as standard parts of, or extensions to, their standard operating systems. .G.FIGURE3.TIF;3.75";2.639";TIFF Figure 3 shows the availability of StickyKeys, RepeatKeys, SlowKeys, BounceKeys, MouseKeys, ToggleKeys, SerialKeys, and ShowSounds on Macintosh and IBM computers. The Macintosh has all but BounceKeys and SerialKeys built directly into the operating system. IBM distributes (free) a package called AccessDOS which contains all of the features. The Access Utility for Windows 3.1 also contains all of these features, and is distributed as a part of the third-party drivers package available from Microsoft, as well as being available on several bulletin boards. StickyKeys is a feature which eliminates the need to press several keys simultaneously. For individuals who type with only one hand, finger, or a head- or mouthstick, it is difficult or impossible to press a modifier key (such as Shift, Control, or Alt) and another key at the same time. When invoked, StickyKeys allows the individual to type modifier keys in sequence with other keys--for example, they can press the Control key and then the H key to get a Control-H. RepeatKeys is a feature which allows the repeat rate on the keyboard to be adjusted. Some individuals get unwanted multiple characters 30 because the key repeat rate is faster than their reaction time. RepeatKeys allows them to change the speed of the repeat function and/or to turn it off. SlowKeys is a feature which facilitates use of the keyboard by individuals who have poor motor control which causes them to accidentally bump keys as they move around between desired keys on the keyboard. The SlowKeys feature allows the user to add a delay to the keyboard so that the key must be held down for a moment or two before it is accepted. In this fashion, the keyboard would only accept keys which were pressed deliberately for a moment, and would ignore keys which were bumped. BounceKeys is a feature to facilitate keyboard use by individuals with tremor or other conditions which cause them to accidentally double- press a key when attempting to press or release it. BounceKeys does not slow down the operation of the keyboard, but does prevent the keyboard from accepting two very quick presses of the same key. Thus, with BounceKeys on, individuals who "bounce" when either pressing or releasing a key would only get a single character. To type double characters, the user would simply have to pause a moment between typing the key two successive times. In addition to these software modifications to the keyboard, the use of a keyguard is also common. A keyguard is a flat plate which fits over the top of a keyboard and has holes corresponding to each key. The individual can then rest their hand on the keyguard and poke a finger down through the hole to type. The keyguard both helps prevent the typing of unwanted characters and provides a stable platform which the individual can use to brace their hand for additional control in typing. Many individuals with physical impairments are unable to control the standard mouse. In some cases, mouse alternates such as trackballs can be used. One software approach which allows the mouse to be controlled from the keyboard is called MouseKeys. When MouseKeys is invoked, the number keypad on the computer switches into a mouse- control mode. The keys can then be used to move the mouse cursor around on the screen. Keys on the keypad also allow the mouse button to be "clicked" or to be locked and released to facilitate dragging. The MouseKeys feature works at the same time as a standard mouse or trackball; it is therefore possible to use these other pointing devices to move about on the screen, and then switch to the keypad for fine movement of the mouse. Single-pixel of the mouse is very easy using MouseKeys. In fact, it is often used by nondisabled graphic software users for precise pixel movements which are difficult or impossible with the standard mouse. For individuals who have good head control, there are also head-operated mice which allow the individual to essentially use their head to point and to use a puff on a straw to act as mouse button. .c.::Alternate Input Techniques While modification to the standard keyboard allows input by some individuals, alternate "special" keyboards or input devices work better for others. These alternate keyboards take many different forms, including expanded keyboards, miniature keyboards, headpointing keyboards, eyegaze-operated keyboards, Morse code input, scanning keyboards which require operation of only a single switch (operated by hand, head, or eyeblink), and voice operated keyboards. Some of these keyboards connect to the computer in place of or along with the standard computer keyboard. Other alternate keyboards connect to the serial or parallel port on the computer, and use special software to cause their input to be injected into the operating system and treated 31 as keystrokes from the standard keyboard. In still other cases, the "keyboard" may appear onscreen in a special window. The individual then selects keys on that video keyboard using a headpointer, a single switch scanning technique, Morse code, or other special input technique. The keys selected on the video keyboards are then fed through the operating system so that they appear to application programs as if they had come from the standard keyboard. For programs which provide mouse support, these alternate input devices can often also create simulated mouse activity in order to the user to access drawing, dragging, and other mouse-based functions of the application programs. 32 .c."Part V: What Should Application Software Manufacturers Do? -- Overview -- Six basic ways for making application software more accessible are: 1) Using an open systems approach 2) Cooperation with access utilities and access features in the operating system 3) Designing software to minimize the skills and abilities needed to operate it 4) Providing more accessible documentation and training 5) Inclusion of access software and hardware in the alpha and beta testing stages of product development (to ensure their compatibility) 6) Provision of special customer support lines or specialists within your customer support structure who are familiar with disability access software and hardware, as well as any compatibility issues and solutions for your software 7) Provision of special developer support lines or contact people for third-party manufacturers of access software and hardware .c.::1) Using an Open Systems Approach Providing access to people who have disabilities is in many ways just a natural extension of the open systems approach to software design. Support of the open systems through GOSIP, POSIX, and the applications portability profile facilitates compatibility with special access software and hardware within these environments. With the rapid advance of technologies and operating systems, software that is based upon open systems concepts and which retains a stable or similar interface format across platforms greatly facilitates the efforts of third-party accessibility developers in keeping up and adapting their products. .c.::2) Cooperation with Access Utilities and Access Features in the Operating System .c.:::Using System Tools and Conventions/Standards The most important and easiest mechanism for ensuring greater compatibility with access software is to use the tools and conventions which have been established for the operating system. Most access software works through modifications to the system tools, or bases its operation on assumptions that the standard conventions for the system will be followed. As long as application software programs use the system tools and conventions, there is generally little problem. For example, programs that do not use the BIOS or toolbox to write to screen, that do not use system cursors, that get keystrokes from the keyboard in unusual or nonstandard fashion, or that write directly to the screen rather than using standard screen drawing tools can cause problems for special access software. Use the system tools for all screen drawing/writing activities (many screen readers for users who 33 are blind depend on it, especially in the GUI environment). .c.:::Provide Software Access to Commands When commands are all executed through the menus, access software has very little trouble in both accessing listings of the available commands and activating the commands. Program commands which are issued in other fashions--such as tool bars, special palettes, etc.-- present problems. It is difficult to get a listing of all of the commands (for example, to present to somebody who is blind). It is also difficult to directly activate the various commands (for example, by an alternate access routine for someone with a severe physical disability). Where all of the palette and tool bar commands are available via the standard menus, this is not a problem. When these commands, however, are not otherwise available, it is important that access somehow be achieved. Access to commands in a program consists of four parts. Fortunately, the movement toward inter-application control is making the commands in a program more accessible electronically. Features like balloon help are also useful for providing descriptions of the commands and buttons on the screen. Eventually, it would be nice to be able to: a) Obtain a listing of all of the possible commands b) Obtain help text for each of the commands c) Be able to execute all of the commands from an external program d) Be able to read the status of user-settable parameters (and be able to set all such parameters) from an external program When these capabilities are all available in a standardized format, it will make the process of developing access programs much simpler and more complete. In the meantime, programs which have most of their commands available for inter-program control may consider making the rest of the program commands available as well. .c.::3) Designing Software to Minimize the Skills and Abilities Needed to Operate It The best way to view people who have disabilities is to think of them simply as individuals with reduced abilities rather than as people without an ability. The reduction in their abilities may vary from slight to severe. The more you can reduce the sensory, physical, or cognitive skills necessary to operate the program, the more people will be able to directly use the program. It also makes it easier for everyone else to use the program. Some examples: using a slightly larger or clearer type, using menus which can be scanned rather than commands which must be memorized, keeping menus short and dialog boxes uncluttered, reducing or eliminating the need for fine motor control. It is also helpful to provide multiple ways of accomplishing functions in order to adapt to different needs or weaknesses. For example, having pull-down menus reduces the cognitive load and makes it easier to operate computers. While providing hot keys reduces the motor load and makes it easier and faster for individuals with physical disabilities to use computers, providing both addresses the needs of both groups and gives all users more options to meet their preferences. A second example would be the ability to use either the scroll bar or the keyboard to select position within a document. The third general strategy is to provide layering to reduce visual and cognitive complexity. One example of this are programs which provide both short and long forms of their menus. The use of option buttons 34 in dialog boxes or other techniques for nesting complexity would be a second example of this. .c.::4) Providing More Accessible Documentation and Training .c.:::Electronic Documentation An important component to the accessibility of any software is the ability of the user to access the documentation. Documentation can be made available in a number of formats, including standard print, large print, braille, audio tape, and electronic form. The most universal of these is the electronic format. In order to be really accessible for people who are blind, the information should be available as an ASCII text file. This would involve converting photographs and diagrams into descriptions, and identifying other techniques for providing emphasis to particular words other than the use of different fonts and highlights. Once a file is available in a pure ASCII form, it can be easily accessed using screen readers as well as translated and printed out as braille or recorded in audio tape format. Although individuals who are blind will find an ASCII text file to be the most useful form, individuals who have severe physical disabilities may find that an electronic copy of your manual which also provided pictures and diagrams will be the most useful form. The electronic form of the manual would allow people with physical disabilities to have access that they would not normally have, because of the difficulty in manipulating books. Having a full graphic version of the manual would provide them with the maximum amount of information. Someday, when "electronic paper" is common, having the manual in both ASCII and "electronic paper" would be optimal. In the meantime, the ASCII version is the most universally accessible format. .c.:::Print Documentation Even the design of standard print manuals can be done to better facilitate their direct use by individuals with visual and other impairments. Some things which can be done to improve the accessibility of standard print documents are: - Using a binding which allows a book to open and lie flat. (Try turning the pages of your documentation using the eraser end of a pencil.) - Avoiding the use of very light colors which might not be easily reproduced by copy machines, especially for important information. (Individuals with low vision will often make a "large print" copy of a manual by running it through an enlarging copy machine.) - Avoiding color coding, or making it redundant with pattern or some other type of coding. (This helps avoid problems for individuals having color blindness, and facilitates the making of large print versions of manuals using enlarging copier machines.) - Using a sans serif font for non-running text. - Information that is presented in charts or diagrams should also be presented redundantly in text. (This facilitates the scanning of documents into ASCII text files using optical character recognition technologies.) One form of electronic documentation which is becoming increasingly more prevalent is on-line help. As long as the help is presented using standard screen-writing routines, access should be no problem. 35 If pictures are used within the on-line help, then text should accompany the picture and provide enough information that the picture or diagram is a redundant visual aid. Translating documentation from its standard print form into an ASCII text file which is effectively formatted can take some effort. However, there are programs set up in the United States which can provide technical assistance in the translation process. (See Appendix B, Resources Available to Help.) .c.:::Training In addition to the printed and on-line documentation, many programs have videotapes or other multi-media training materials available for them. In addition, some companies provide training courses, either in the direct use of their product or for programmers or other professionals wishing to use or extend their product. Having access to the training materials for a program can be as or more important than access to the basic documentation. As software becomes more and more complicated, the ability to access and use the training materials becomes essential. Videotapes with closed (or open) captions, provision of equivalent training materials which do not require the ability to see, and the use of descriptive video (where the actions taking place on the screen are described as a narrative on a separate audio track) are examples of some strategies which can be used here. Providing more accessible training does not mean that videotapes cannot be used because there are people who are blind, however. It could mean that the same information provided in the videotapes is also available in a form that does not require sight. In addition to the training materials themselves, it is also important that training sessions be as accessible as possible. Some strategies for doing this include holding the training sessions in facilities which meet ADA accessibility standards, and may include the provision of interpreting or other services to meet the needs of specific attenders. .c.::5) Product Testing with Access Software and Hardware It is difficult to ensure that new application software will not cause problems for any of the many different types of special access and adaptive hardware and software. Often, the only way to tell whether a product or new features in a product will cause problems is to actually try it out with the different access products. As a first pass, companies may have people with disabilities on site who can test new programs for general usability. However, there are literally hundreds of different adaptive aids. As a result, it is difficult for each application software manufacturer to have all of the adaptations on-site to try with their new software or new features. Two alternate strategies are therefore suggested. The first strategy is to include individuals from the various adaptive hardware manufacturers and software developers as a part of the early beta testing of a product. This will take a concerted effort on the part of application software developers, since these adaptive product manufacturers themselves do not represent a large enough market to normally qualify for early beta release of application software programs. A second strategy would be to contract with a third-party testing lab that is familiar with a) the different types of hardware and software 36 adaptations available and b) the problems usually encountered by these access products with application software. This would involve a financial investment on the part of the application software developer. On the other hand, it may provide for a better mechanism to get a relatively high confidence evaluation of the compatibility of the application software. It would also allow testing with a range of different hardware and software adaptations without requiring the application manufacturers to release their software to a large number of different manufacturers. The early testing of software (pre-beta) is important, since problems with accessibility are likely to occur at a level that is difficult to address at the beta stages of an application. A major difficulty with this approach is that there are no known testing labs with the broad cross-sectional base of information that would be needed to carry out such testing at the present time. The best approach at this time therefore appears to be involving the developers of the adaptive hardware and software as early as possible in the testing of a product or update. .c.::6) Provision of Special Customer Support Lines or Specialists Another key to having software which is more accessible is the provision of specialized customer support. Often, an application program will seem to be incompatible with various adaptive hardware or software products, when in fact it will work with them if certain parameters are properly set. In other cases, it may be incompatible with one particular adaptation, but be easily accessed using others. Such information is important to users who have disabilities, and generally cannot be obtained by calling the standard customer support lines. In fact, a number of companies have built-in accessibility features in their products which are unknown to their own customer support teams. While it would be nice to have all of the customer support personnel fully aware of all types of disabilities, adaptations, and compatibility issues, this is unrealistic. There is simply too much specialized information. Even with a specialized hot line, application companies may find that they identify different individuals with expertise on how to use or adapt their software for users with different disabilities. A two-tiered approach to support for users with disabilities is therefore suggested. First is the inclusion of basic disability access issues and information across all of the customer support personnel. This would include both a TDD (telecommunication device for the deaf) line and a voice line. It would also include an awareness of the efforts by the company to make their products more accessible, and the existence of the specialized customer support line. All customers, including those with disabilities, could then use the standard support lines to handle standard product use questions. When specialized questions arose, such as compatibility of the product with special disability access utilities, the calls could be forwarded to a disability/technical support team. The second tier would be the creation of a customer support line specifically for individuals who have disabilities. If your company provides an electronic customer assistance mechanism, a special forum or section for disability access should also be provided. The purpose of these mechanisms would be to provide specialized and in-depth information and support regarding disability access and compatibility issues or fixes for different access utilities. For some small companies, it may be difficult to develop a depth of expertise in each of the disability areas. In that case, rather than 37 trying to hire someone with expertise in the different disability areas as well as expertise in the technical support aspects, the company might contract with an outside agency who does have this expertise and give them the training on the company's software and technical support information. The existence of the special customer support, as well as the phone numbers, should be prominently listed in the documentation. Specific services and disability access features of products should also be plainly documented in manuals. .c.::7) Provision of Special Developer Support Lines or Contact People for Third-Party Manufacturers of Access Software and Hardware Another key area in ensuring the accessibility of application software is support for companies developing disability access software. Again, these companies are usually small enough that they do not qualify for the types of support generally provided to other, larger developers and operating system manufacturers. As a result, it is often difficult or impossible for them to qualify for access to technical support in the same manner as other larger third-party manufacturers. In addition, the types of problems they have sometimes differ. It is often therefore helpful to have individuals within the technical support team who specialize in these issues, and who can work with developers to both a) identify strategies for those developers to effectively access your application, and b) identify ways in which your application or future editions of it can be made more user-friendly. This latter point is essential in the development of new versions of application programs. As mentioned above, discovering an incompatibility with access software at the beta testing stage is too late. Typically, the types of inconsistencies that occur with access software occur at a rather fundamental architectural or structural level in the application. Thus, it is usually too late by the time the beta test occurs to do anything about accessibility problems. On the other hand, software is usually not available for testing until it is substantially completed. Ensuring the future accessibility of software products is therefore highly dependent upon interchange and communication between the software development team at the application manufacturer and the third-party access product developers. Through this interaction, as well as through documents such as this, application software developers can begin to identify the kinds of things that do or might cause accessibility problems. They can then get in contact with the third-party assistive device manufacturers and explore ways to circumvent these problems. 38 (This page intentionally left blank, to facilitate double-sided copying) 39 .c."Appendix A Initial Listing of Specific Techniques for Increasing the Accessibility of Application Software Appendix A Table of Contents .Begin Table A. Character-Based Programs--Writing to the Screen.........33 - Use Full-Width Text Wherever Possible..............33 - Avoid Use of --- or *****..........................33 - Avoid Alphabetic Characters to Draw Pictures, Boxes, etc................................................33 - Provide/Retain Character Mode for Your DOS Software33 Graphics-Based Programs--Writing to Screen..............34 - Use the System Tools...............................34 - Use the Text-Drawing Tools to Erase Text As Well...34 - Minimize Use of Painted Text.......................34 Cursors, Pointers and Highlighting......................34 - Use System Cursors.................................34 - Drag the System Cursor With You....................34 - Allow the Substitution of Larger or Heavier-Line Cursors and Pointers...............................35 - Carry a Character With You When Moving a Highlight Down a List........................................35 Screen Format and Color.................................35 - Use Consistent and Expected Screen Layouts.........35 - Use Care When Transmitting Information With Color..36 - Provide a Monochrome Option........................36 - Make Sure that Warnings, Alerts, and Help Balloons Are Sufficiently Stable To Be Read Before They Disappear..........................................36 Menus...................................................36 - Use the System Tools...............................36 - Avoid Non-Text Menu Items (Unless Redundant).......37 - Provide Keyboard Access to All Menus...............37 - Provide Alternate Mechanisms to Access Commands....37 - Direct Access to Palettes and Toolbars.............37 - Draw Toolbar Icons Individually....................37 Buttons and Dialog Boxes................................37 - Give Buttons Logical Names.........................37 - Order Buttons in the Dialog Box Definition in a Logical Screen Order...............................37 - Use Standard Relationships Between Buttons and Their Captions...........................................38 - Allow Direct Keyboard Access to All Aspects of the Dialog.............................................38 Sound...................................................38 - Provide All Auditory Information in a Visual Format As Well............................................38 - Provide ShowSounds Support for All Sounds..........38 - Ensure that Visual Cues Are Noticeable.............38 - Provide Captions for Synthetic or Recorded Speech..38 Keyboard................................................39 - Update System and Keyboard Flags/Lights for Locking Keys...............................................39 - Provide Full Access to All Aspects of the Program from the Keyboard..................................39 - Do Not Interfere with Key Latching and Other StickyKey Functions................................39 Documentation...........................................39 Packaging...............................................39 General.................................................40 - Making All Program Settings Software-Queriable and Settable...........................................40 .End Table A. 41 Appendix A Initial Listing of Specific Techniques for Increasing the Accessibility of Application Software This appendix contains an initial list of specific guidelines. This list is only a collection of items submitted so far; it is not meant to be comprehensive. Once this document has been circulated for comment, a more complete list will be compiled and published. Please consider this list open-ended: feel free to comment on any item or add as many items as you wish. The lists are organized by aspects of software design--menus, cursors, writing to screen, etc.--rather than by disability. This has been done so that the significance to design is made more clear. .a.:Character-Based Programs--Writing to the Screen 1) Use Full-Width Text Wherever Possible Text-based screen readers default to reading left to right. Text which is positioned in columns is often read as if it were continuous text; that is, the text in the first column is read, and then the screen reader jumps to the next column and continues reading. Many screen readers can be programmed to deal with text in columns. Where possible, however, continuous text is easier to deal with. 2) Avoid Use of --- or ***** Where possible, use extended ASCII character graphics rather than standard ASCII characters (such as "***") for drawing lines, making boxes, etc. When screen readers hit such text, they may read it as "asterisk, asterisk, asterisk," unnecessarily slowing down the process. A particular nuisance is text buried in a string of asterisks. In order to read the text, the individual must sit while the screen reader reads off the punctuation or other characters. Screen reading programs can be programmed to skip nonalphabetic characters; however, this can cause the individual to miss important information on the screen. 3) Avoid Alphabetic Characters to Draw Pictures, Boxes, etc. A similar problem appears when alphabetic characters are used to draw boxes. Using 1's (the digit one) or l's (lower case L) to draw a vertical line is obvious to somebody looking at the overall screen. When reading a single line of text using a screen reader, however, these do not look like a vertical line but are read aloud as the characters "L" or "One." 4) Provide/Retain Character Mode for Your DOS Software Software that presents information in a color graphics mode often uses different strategies to highlight or select text. Providing an optional character mode in your software greatly 42 facilitates access software, particularly cursor finding. .a.:Graphics-Based Programs--Writing to Screen 1) Use the System Tools Wherever possible, applications should use the standard text- drawing tools included in the system. Most screen access software programs for graphics-based computers figure out what is on the screen by watching the use of these tools. Even when the tools are used to draw characters in other (nonscreen) locations of memory and then copy the information to the screen, it is still possible for access software to track its use. In this fashion, the access software can keep track of which characters with which attributes appear in each location on the screen without having to attempt to do optical character recognition directly on the bit-mapped fonts on the screen. (Direct OCR of pixel image of the characters on the screen has been proposed. However, when small point italic characters are used, they are generally so distorted as to be unrecognizable. In addition, underlining, shading, outlining, and other attributes to the text can make it difficult to recognize. As a result, tracking the use of the text-drawing tools is the only currently available technique.) 2) Use the Text-Drawing Tools to Erase Text As Well Occasionally, applications will draw the text characters in a different portion of memory, and then copy the block of text onto the screen. As mentioned above, as long as the text- drawing routines are used, this does not pose a problem. However, when the applications are done with this text and they want to re-use the area, they will often directly zero the space in memory where they were drawing the characters rather than using the text-drawing tools to erase this area. This makes it more difficult for the screen reading software to keep track of which characters are or are not still drawn in that portion of memory. 3) Minimize Use of Painted Text Occasionally, applications will use text which has been predrawn and stored in the program as a bit image. Such painted text cannot be read by many screen reading routines. When this text is purely decorative, as on a start-up screen, it does not pose a problem. If it contains important information or information necessary to use or understand the program, it should be created in real time using the text- drawing tools in order to be accessible by screen reading programs. .a.:Cursors, Pointers and Highlighting The problems surrounding cursors and pointers generally fall into two categories: being able to substitute the cursor/pointer with a larger, fatter cursor so that it can be seen with poor vision, and being able to electronically locate the cursor so that the screen reading or enlargement programs can follow text entry. Eventually, some standard mechanism for allowing electronic cursor/pointer location may be devised. In the meantime, the following strategies may be used. 43 1) Use System Cursors Whether using text-based or graphics-based screens, using the system cursors and pointers wherever possible facilitates their location. Again, most screen reading programs can easily locate the system cursor and pointer. However, if the application software creates its own cursor (by highlighting text, by creating a box, etc.), there is no way for the access software to easily tell where the cursor is. 2) Drag the System Cursor With You If the application software does use some special nonsystem cursor, one strategy is to drag the system cursor along with the special cursor. In this fashion, the access software can easily follow the custom cursor. Screen reading software frequently provides a capability to automatically locate the system cursor. If the system cursor follows any specialized cursor, then the blind user will be able to locate both. For individuals with low vision, the screen enlargement software will generally follow the cursor automatically, so that as they type, the enlarged image on the screen tracks the typing. 3) Allow the Substitution of Larger or Heavier-Line Cursors and Pointers Some individuals with low vision are able to use computers without screen enlargement software, either by using the standard font or a slightly larger font. The text cursor (and some mouse cursors), however, sometime consists of a single thin line which easily disappears from the user's view. As the user enlarges the fonts, the cursor line usually gets taller, but it does not necessarily get any thicker or easier to see. If an application is using a system cursor, then there shouldn't be a problem (since the system should already support an alternate system cursor which would be heavier and easier for individuals to see.) If the application software is providing its own cursors, however, then provision of an alternate cursor with a heavier line width should be considered. Alternately, a special control which would make the cursor stand out in some fashion, to make it easy to locate, could be provided. Some strategies for making the cursor easy to locate include: - Having the cursor momentarily change into some large dark shape which is easy to locate when a particular key combination is pressed; - Providing a larger thick cross-hair which covers some or all of the screen momentarily while a particular key combination is pressed. 4) Carry a Character With You When Moving a Highlight Down a List A common strategy for selecting items from a list is to use the arrow keys to move a highlighted bar up and down the list. A highlighted bar is much harder for screen reading software to detect than is a character. If a small character is also moved up and down a list (along with the highlight) or in some other way change the characters on the line that is selected in the list, it greatly facilitates access by screen reading programs. 44 Two examples are shown below. Example 1: Example 2: Item 1 1 Item > Item 2 2 Item Item 3 [3] Item Item 4 4 Item .a.:Screen Format and Color 1) Use Consistent and Expected Screen Layouts For individuals who have low vision, consistency of screen layout is important. As discussed earlier, individuals with low vision often use screen enlargement software to access the screen. As a result, they are only able to view a small portion of the screen, similar to looking down a paper tube. Similarly, individuals who are blind must use screen reading software to locate items on the screen, searching one letter or word at a time. Thus, programs that have a consistent location for menus, feedback messages, etc., are much easier to use. Where operating systems specify standard procedures and locations for things, it is very helpful for application programs to follow these standards. 2) Use Care When Transmitting Information With Color For individuals who are color blind, the ability to select the colors used for all aspects of the screen is helpful. In general, most displays use light characters on a dark background or dark characters on a light background. As a result, they are generally visible no matter what their color is, simply because of the difference in their intensity. However, the ability to adjust colors to increase contrast is helpful for some individuals. When using color to encode information, using colors having much different intensities makes the colors easier to differentiate. A light yellow and a dark green, for example, could be distinguished even if the screen were displayed in gray-scale mode because of the difference in their intensity. 3) Provide a Monochrome Option One mechanism to circumvent problems with color is simply to provide a monochrome or gray-scale option for the program. Individuals having difficulty with colors can then use the program in the monochrome or gray-scale mode. 4) Make Sure that Warnings, Alerts, and Help Balloons Are Sufficiently Stable To Be Read Before They Disappear Alert messages that pop up and disappear quickly may be missed by some individuals, depending on their screen access tools. To avoid this problem, alert messages should remain on screen until dismissed by the user. Some other applications have text which appears when the mouse cursor touches some point on the screen. If the mouse cursor moves off of that point, the text disappears. This provides a particular problem for screen access software, if it moves the mouse pointer along as it reads the text. 45 A typical scenario of this problem would occur follows. The user moves the cursor to a point on the screen, causing the text to pop up. The user then tries to read the text, but as the screen reader begins to read the text, it moves the mouse cursor to move along with the reading. As soon as the cursor moves to the first word, it has left the original trigger point on the screen, and the text that the user is trying to read disappears. At the present time, the balloon help on the Macintosh suffers from such a problem. A mechanism which would allow triggered text to be locked on, so that the individual can move the cursor over the text to read it, would be helpful. Individuals with learning disabilities may experience similar problems. For example, there is now a special utility program on the market which allows people with learning disabilities to get reading assistance: the user points the mouse cursor at a word, and the program reads the word aloud. Such a program would be unable to read words in pop-up messages such as those described above. As soon as the user moved the cursor to tell the special utility which word to read, the message would disappear. .a.:Menus 1) Use the System Tools As discussed earlier, most access software works by attaching itself to the operating system. When application software uses standard system menu tools, access software is able to read the list of available commands and can provide the individual with the ability to directly maneuver through and activate the commands. 2) Avoid Non-Text Menu Items (Unless Redundant) Menu items that are not text-based and are not accompanied by text are difficult for screen reading programs to access. 3) Provide Keyboard Access to All Menus Application programs which provide the ability to access all of the menus by using the keyboard greatly facilitate access by individuals who cannot use the standard mouse. This access may be provided either by use of the arrow keys to move around through the menu structure, or through use of keyboard equivalents for the menu items. 4) Provide Alternate Mechanisms to Access Commands Application programs which provide multiple mechanisms for accessing commands better accommodate the differing needs of users. Access via menus and layered dialogs provide easier access for individuals with lower cognitive abilities. Direct access with key combinations provides better access for individuals with physical impairments and for individuals who are blind. 5) Direct Access to Palettes and Toolbars 46 As with menus, application programs which provide direct access to palettes and toolbars greatly facilitate access by individuals with different disabilities. If the toolbar is only a shortcut method to accessing items in the menu, and the menu is accessible, then access to the toolbar would not be necessary. When the toolbar commands are not available in the menu, however, direct access might be provided, or the items might be provided redundantly as an optional menu. 6) Draw Toolbar Icons Individually Screen access software for individuals who are blind works by monitoring the operating system's screen drawing routines. When individual icons are drawn separately, they can be individually identified, named, and accessed. If a toolbar or palette is drawn as a single bit image, the individual tools within that palette are not individually identifiable or accessible using standard techniques. .a.:Buttons and Dialog Boxes 1) Give Buttons Logical Names When naming the buttons within a dialog box (whose names do not appear on the buttons in the dialog definition), be sure that clear, logical, descriptive names which match the words printed on the screen near them. Screen reading software accesses these names in helping the person who is blind to decipher the information within the dialog box. 2) Order Buttons in the Dialog Box Definition in a Logical Screen Order In some operating systems, buttons within a dialog box are not normally accessible directly from the keyboard. Access utilities exist which allow individuals to tab through the buttons until they reach the desired button, after which they can select it from the keyboard. The order in which the tab moves through the buttons is dependent upon the order in which the buttons are defined in the dialog. If the button definitions are not in logical order, the tabbing key will jump the highlight in what appears to be a random pattern around the dialog, highlighting the buttons in their definition order. Although this does not prevent access, it is disorienting. 3) Use Standard Relationships Between Buttons and Their Captions If the caption is not a part of the button itself, use some standardized spatial relationship so that the location of a label for a button (or a button for a label) is predictable for individuals using screen readers to explore/use a dialog box. 4) Allow Direct Keyboard Access to All Aspects of the Dialog Again, the best solution is to provide direct keyboard access to all aspects of the dialog, including buttons, scroll windows, text entry fields, and pop-up menus. 47 .a.:Sound 1) Provide All Auditory Information in a Visual Format As Well A general solution which solves the access problems for both individuals who are hard of hearing and individuals who are deaf is the provision of all auditory information in a visual form as well. Auditory warning beeps can be accompanied by a visual indicator. Beeps and other sounds would described in text, both to differentiate the sounds and to allow access by individuals who are deaf-blind (and would be using a braille screen reading program to access all of the information from the computer). Speech output (in cases where it is important for understanding and using the program) can be accompanied by text on the screen (either as a normal part of the program, or in a caption box). This presentation of information visually can be programmed to happen at all times, or can be invoked if a special operating system flag is set indicating that the user would like all auditory information presented visually. If the system software provides a "ShowSounds" switch, the setting of this switch could then trigger the visual display feature. 2) Provide ShowSounds Support for All Sounds For beeps or other sounds which are not normally accompanied by a visual indication, application software should check for a system "ShowSounds" switch. At the present time, the "ShowSounds" switch is not a standard feature. In the future, however, it should be appearing as a standard system switch which can be accessed by software. Users who are in noisy environments or who cannot hear well would then be able to set the "ShowSounds" switch. Application programs could then check that switch and provide a visual indication to accompany any auditory sounds. 3) Ensure that Visual Cues Are Noticeable When providing a visual cue to what would otherwise be an auditory alert, it is important to ensure that the cue is sufficient to attract the user's attention when viewed out of the corner of the eye. An individual who is looking at the keyboard and typing, for example, is not going to notice a small icon that appears and disappears momentarily in the corner of the display. A flickering menu bar or area at the bottom of the screen will stand a better chance of attracting attention. 4) Provide Captions for Synthetic or Recorded Speech As programs incorporate the use of synthetic or recorded speech, closed captioning should be considered. Again, in those cases where the information being presented via speech is already presented in text on the screen, there is no need to present the information visually in any other fashion. In those cases where information is being presented via speech which is not otherwise displayed on the screen, application programs might check for the "ShowSounds" switch. If the switch is set, a small box containing the text being spoken could be displayed on screen. Music or other sounds being provided for adornment would not have to be presented in 48 caption form, if they are not important to the operation of the program. Where the tune or sound is important to the operation of the program, then some description to that effect could appear in the caption box. NOTE: In addition to providing a "ShowSounds" switch as a part of the operating system, manufacturers of modern operating systems are also being encouraged to build captioning tools directly into the operating system to facilitate the implementation of closed captioning by application programs. .a.:Keyboard 1) Update System and Keyboard Flags/Lights for Locking Keys Some application programs provide their own on-screen indication as to whether the CapsLock, ScrollLock, and NumLock keys have been depressed. In some cases, this feedback is independent of (and therefore sometimes contradictory to) the flags in the system or the status of the lights on the keyboard. This can cause inconsistent feedback to people who are using access programs which check the status of these indicators. Applications programs should either use the status flags in the system and keyboard or update them to agree with the program. 2) Provide Full Access to All Aspects of the Program from the Keyboard Making all aspects of the program, including menus, dialogs, palettes, etc., accessible from the keyboard significantly increases accessibility for some users. Although a MouseKeys feature (which allows the user to use the keypad to drive the mouse around the screen) could be used to provide access to toolbars, for example, this is a very slow and ineffective mechanism. Even if the individual is using MouseKeys for drawing, rapid access to the tools via the keyboard can greatly facilitate the use of the application software by individuals with disabilities (and other users as well). 3) Do Not Interfere with Key Latching and Other StickyKey Functions One problem faced by individuals with disabilities is the inability to hold down two keys simultaneously. "StickyKey" programs which provide electronic latching for the Shift, Control, Alternate, Option, and Command keys on the different computer platforms already exist, and are being made available by operating system manufacturers. As a result, it is not necessary to build this type of feature into your application program. In fact, this is an example of an accessibility feature which is best handled at the system level. Moreover, implementing it in an application can cause a conflict with and therefore interfere with the feature in the system software. .a.:Documentation See discussion in Part IV. .a.:Packaging 49 Some packaging techniques make it difficult or impossible for people with manipulation problems to open the package. Where products are sealed for warranty or virus protection, some means for easily opening the package should be provided. .a.:General 1) Making All Program Settings Software-Queriable and Settable In order to facilitate access to programs by individuals using their access software, it is useful to have all user-settable parameters both readable and settable via external software. This might be accomplished in a number of fashions, including providing an optional menu which could be enabled (since the access software would already have access to the menus.) This technique would allow the software both to easily get a list of the externally available commands and to execute them. Commands can be provided for reading and for setting parameters, either directly or via dialogs. 50 .c.Appendix B Resources Available to Help 51 This page left intentionally blank, to facilitate double-sided copying. 52 Appendix B: Resources Available to Help For comprehensive listings of third-party computer access hardware and software.... Online: ABLEDATA is a comprehensive database of over 17,000 rehabilitation and assistive device products. The full range of technology is included, from wheelchairs to sensory aids to communication devices. Low-tech devices, such as typing sticks and communication boards, are also included. ABLEDATA is maintained by Macro Systems, 8630 Fenton Street, Suite 300, Silver Spring, MD 20910, 301/588-5484. ABLEDATA is also currently available on-line via BRS, Bibliographic Retrieval Service, which is subscribed to by most libraries. On Disk: Hyper-ABLEDATA is a desktop version of the ABLEDATA database. Hyper-ABLEDATA allows the full 17,000-item database to be searched by company name, product name, type of product, or Boolean logic searching. It is available on CD-ROM, and contains pictures of about 1,000 products, and sound samples for 50 different synthesized voices. The Hyper-ABLEDATA CD is available from the Trace R&D Center, S-151 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison WI 53705; price (1992) is $50.00 for two issues of the CD. On Paper: Trace ResourceBook: Assistive Technologies for Communication, Control, and Computer Access (1991-92 Edition) is a comprehensive guide to software, hardware, and augmentative communication equipment. Updated information is included on over 1,000 products and 400 manufacturers. Products covered range from assistive devices for communication, such as headsticks, to computer software for speech therapy. Each product entry features basic product and manufacturer information, a picture of the product (if relevant), and a one- or two-paragraph description. The ResourceBook is available from the Trace R&D Center, S-151 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison WI 53705; price (1991) is $50.00. For assistance in translating and formatting documentation into accessible ASCII text files, contact: George Kersher, Director R&D Division Recording for the Blind PO Box 7068 Missoula, MT 59802 406/243-2899 53 For information on efforts of other application software companies working on accessibility issues, contact: Information Technology Foundation (formerly ADAPSO) 1616 N. Fort Myer Drive, Suite 1300 Arlington, VA 22209-9998 703/522-5055 (voice) 703/525-2279 (fax) For general information on the Federal regulations regarding computer accessibility, contact: Frank McDonough, Assistant Commissioner Office of Federal Information Resources Management General Services Administration 18th and F Streets NW, Room 2239, KA Washington, DC 20405 For general information on Federal computer accessibility, contact: Clearinghouse on Computer Accommodation (COCA) General Services Administration 18th and F Streets NW, Room 2022, KGDO Washington, DC 20405 For information on the latest application software design guidelines... For information on the latest application software design guidelines, as well as the latest versions of design guidelines for computer hardware and operating systems, contact: Gregg Vanderheiden, Ph.D., Director Trace R&D Center S-151 Waisman Center 1500 Highland Avenue Madison, WI 53705-2280 608/262-6966 (voice) 608/263-5408 (TDD) 608/262-8848 (fax) For information on disability statistics, contact: Mitchell Laplante, Ph.D. Disability Statistics Program Inventory Institute of Health and Aging University of California - San Francisco 3rd and Paranassus Avenue, Room N631 San Francisco, CA 94143 415/476-9485 54 .c.Appendix C A Collection of General Notes on Accessibility (with specific comments in relation to Computers and Application Software) 55 56 Appendix C A Collection of General Notes on Accessibility (with specific comments in relation to Computers and Application Software) What Is Meant by Accessibility? Accessibility refers to the ability of products and environments to be used by people. In this particular context, accessibility is used to refer to the ability of standard application software to be accessed and used by people with disabilities. Although the way people access the software may vary, the program is accessible to an individual if the individual is able to use it to carry out all of the same functions and to achieve the same results as individuals with similar skills and training who do not have a disability. Similarly, with software and operating systems, accessibility refers to the ability of an individual to access and use the product in an effective and efficient manner. It does not have to be identical to the manner in which somebody without a disability would use it, but it should provide equivalent and efficient access. Four Types of Strategies that Standard Product Manufacturers Can Use to Make Their Products More Accessible In looking at product accessibility, it is important to note that there are different approaches to making products more accessible. In any one product, it may be necessary to use one or a combination of these approaches to achieve the desired level of accessibility across all of the types of disability. Each of these approaches has advantages and disadvantages. All other things being equal, however, wherever possible, the first type, direct accessibility, is the most advantageous. These four approaches, in order of desirability, are: 1) Direct Accessibility 2) Accessibility via Standard Options or Accessories (available separately from the manufacturer) 3) Compatibility with Third-Party Assistive Devices 4) Facilitation of Custom Modification 57 1) Direct Accessibility Description For most types or degrees of impairment, there are simple and low cost (or no cost) adaptations to product designs which can significantly increase their accessibility and usefulness to individuals with functional impairments. By incorporating these design modifications into the initial product design, the standard product can be more accessible directly "out of the box." Direct accessibility features can allow large numbers of people with mild to moderate disabilities to directly use products as their colleagues without disabilities do. As mentioned previously, they also provide options or make a product easier to use by all. Advantages 1) Pre-Installed Always there; no need to find, buy, or install. 2) Public Shared Products Will be present on products used in public or shared locations. 3) Compatible If accessibility features are built directly into a standard product the access features will be automatically tested by third-party software or accessory manufacturers for compatibility with their products when they do their testing. 4) No Additional Cost to User Product costs same for users with disabilities as those without. 5) Less Stigma Particularly for older users, built in accessibility is much more acceptable than special aids or modifications and may be unnoticed. 6) Easier to Use by All Products designed for people with reduced abilities are generally easier for everyone else to understand and use. Disadvantages 1) Feasibility for Some Disabilities It is not practical or feasible to make some products directly accessible for people with some disabilities. (e.g. not practical to build a braille display into every computer to allow access by deaf-blind users) Notes For application software manufacturers, a good part of maximizing the accessibility of their software will be in being sure it is compatible with the built-in or third-party accessibility features and aids. This compatibility includes not interfering with the invocation and operation of the access features as well as cooperating with them by 58 making key information available only to the application program available to the access features. Examples A "MouseKeys" feature is now a standard part of all Apple Macintosh computers shipped. This feature, which can be invoked directly from the keyboard, allows the user to move the cursor across the screen via the numeric keypad rather than the mouse. Individuals who do not have the motor control necessary to operate a mouse can use this feature (which is built into all Macintoshes) to access the Macintosh. Because the feature is implemented as an extension to the computer's operating system, it costs nothing to include as part of the product. Since "MouseKeys" became available, many able-bodied users have found it useful as well because of its capability for precise one-pixel positioning, which was not previously available. (The MouseKeys feature is now available for IBM computers running DOS, through a package called "AccessDOS," available from IBM, and for Windows 3.0 and 3.1 through a package called "Windows Access Utility," available from Microsoft. (However, in these cases, the access features are available as a separate package from the standard operating system, and would therefore be examples of Type 2 accessibility, accessibility via standard option or accessory.) Other, noncomputer examples of direct accessibility include MacDonald's, who embossed braille characters on the tops of its soft drink cup covers along with the letters labelling the pushdown buttons on the lid that indicate whether the drink is diet, etc., and Proctor- Silex, who embossed braille characters on the bottom of some of its bowls indicating the size (quarts) of the bowl. 59 2) Accessibility via Standard Options or Accessories (available separately from the manufacturer) Description Sometimes it is not possible to design the standard product to make it directly accessible for some disability populations. Alternatives to standard design may be identified, but offering all of them may not be practical due to some alternatives being mutually exclusive, too expensive, or awkward as a direct part of a standard product. When this occurs, a strategy that manufacturers might use would be to make these adaptations or alternatives available as standard options or accessories from the manufacturer. These may be special order items, or preferably, items packed with the product. These special features or accessories should be listed and described in the standard documentation that comes with the product. They could also be listed in advertising for the product. (If the options or accessories are sold as separate products by the manufacturer, the listing below would not apply, and the product would more closely resemble the advantages/disadvantages list for third-party compatibility found on the next page.) Advantages 1) No Additional Cost to User If the manufacturer provides it free, the product would cost the same for users with disabilities as those without. 2) Possible Compatibility Testing If the features are packaged directly with the standard product, they may be tested by third-party software or accessory manufacturers for compatibility with their products when they do their testing. 3) Easier Implementation of Some Features Some features, such as braille overlays or software extensions that require substantial memory, may be easier to implement as options or accessories to the standard product. Disadvantages 1) Must Be Installed No need to find or buy the feature, but it would have to be installed. 2) Public Shared Products May or may not be installed and therefore available on public use products. 3) Possibly No Compatibility Testing If the features are not packaged directly with the standard product, they may very will not be known to or tested by third- party software or accessory manufacturers for compatibility with their products when they do their testing. 60 Notes One reason that this approach is sometimes taken is because of incompatibilities between various access features. It may, in fact, not be possible to have all of them co-reside simultaneously. In this case, an effective approach, particularly in the computer industry, would be to package the various options as separate but included components in the product when it is shipped. If the access products/accessories are sold as separate products by a manufacturer, they would be similar to a third-party product from the point of view of the purchaser/user. There may be some compatibility advantage to the standard manufacturer's offering, since they have more detailed and inside information on their product and product plans. There may also be more of a tendency for other software developers to test their software with the standard manufacturer's offering. On the other hand, third-party access device manufacturers specialize in the design of aids for people with disabilities or with particular disabilities, and may be able to design access products with better functionality and compatibility with other devices or strategies used by the person with a disability. As a result, no preference between access products marketed by the standard product manufacturers and those marketed by third-party manufacturers can be drawn on a general basis. Similarly, no preference between large and small third-party manufacturers can be drawn. Decisions in this area must be made on a product-by-product basis. Examples Apple currently ships a screen enlargement utility called CloseView as a standard part of its operating system package. Because CloseView consumes a fair amount of memory when loaded, it is not automatically installed in the system when the computer is purchased (as the other disability access features are). It is, however, included as a part of the standard system disks (along with a number of other optional system extensions which are not disability-related). Because it is packaged with the standard operating system when it is sold, it has a much better chance of being compatible. AccessDOS and the Windows Access Utilities cited above are also examples of Type 2 accessibility features. They are not, however, currently packaged with the standard product. 61 3) Compatibility with Third-Party Assistive Devices Description This involves designing the standard product in a manner that facilitates the connection of third-party adaptive interfaces or assistive devices. No matter how sincere a manufacturer is about increasing the accessibility of their products, there will always be individuals with severe or multiple disabilities who will require special accessories in order to operate the product. Individuals who are deaf-blind, for example, who require dynamic braille displays (costing thousands of dollars) cannot be directly accommodated when building a computer which itself costs under a thousand dollars. While many accessibility options can be implemented in software, such that they cause no significant increase in the product manufacturing cost, the inclusion of a multi-thousand dollar braille display in every computer in order to accommodate a small number of users is not efficient or reasonable. Similarly, an individual who can only use an eyegaze operated keyboard, again costing a significant amount of money, could not reasonably be accommodated by adding such an interface to standard product design. In these and other cases where substantial hardware or other manufacturing costs would be involved, the most appropriate mechanism for providing accessibility is through third-party special assistive devices. In these cases, the best strategy for standard product manufacturers is to maximize the compatibility of their product with these assistive devices. Advantages 1) Better Tailored Solutions Use of third-party access aids or special access software products which can be selected by a user to meet their particular needs and preferences can provide better access than a general built-in utility, especially for people with more severe disabilities. 2) Familiar Interface Users who already have a communication or interface aid that they require for other purposes (and are familiar with) can use it to operate products which are compatible with it. 3) Only Practical Approach for Some For some access strategies which involve expensive hardware, such as a dynamic Braille display or eye gaze keyboard, the use of third-party assistive devices (rather than building interfaces into each product) is the only practical approach. Disadvantages 1) Must be Installed User must find, buy and install/attach the access interface. 2) Additional Cost to User This approach requires that the user purchase the access interface or device separately. However, if they have a severe disability, they may already have a general purpose interface device. 62 3) Public Shared Products It is rarely possible to open up public access products (computers, information terminals, etc.) to install software or hardware needed by a user to access the product. (An exception to this would be products which have a standard external port for connecting access aids.) 4) Usually No Compatibility Testing Features that are not part of a standard product are usually not known to, much less tested for compatibility by, most third-party software or accessory manufacturers. Notes Built-in and third-party access approaches are not exclusive of each other. It may well be appropriate for an individual to use built-in access features for occasional use or basic access to public and shared products (computers or information systems for example) that the individual runs across in daily life yet use a more optimum access system from a third-party manufacturer when they must work at a device for extended periods of time. Assistive devices/interfaces from third-party manufacturers generally take one of two forms. They are usually either: a) programs, or accessories that are made specifically for interfacing or using the standard product or products like it (e.g., an eye gaze keyboard or screen reading program), or b) stand-alone aids (such as communication aids or writing systems) which can also function as interfaces to other devices. The use of third-party access products can be facilitated in a number of ways including (but not limited to) : - providing a standard external connection point where the product can be controlled from and where information sent to the display can also be found. by third-party products - providing hooks or connection points in the operating system where third-party access software can tap into the information and control flow. - not using display or control formats that are inaccessible to third-party access products without providing the information/control in an accessible format as well - developing and documenting access strategies for new control or display formats which are currently inaccessible to third- party products. Examples Many people with physical disabilities cannot use standard computer keyboards. Some of these people would require more extensive modifications than would be possible using the first two accessibility approaches discussed. Currently, there are assistive device manufacturers who make alternative input devices to fit people with a variety of severe physical disabilities. However, the manufacturers of these assistive devices have always had problems ensuring that the devices would work with standard, commercially available computers. 63 As part of the effort by the computer industry to cooperate with manufacturers of assistive devices, both IBM and Microsoft Corporation now distribute an extension to their operating systems (DOS and Windows) called "SerialKeys." This extension allows people to connect alternative input devices to the serial port of the standard personal computer in a way which makes input to the serial port look like it is coming directly from the standard keyboard and mouse. In this fashion, the user with a disability can completely access and control the computer and all of its software from an alternate input system without touching the standard keyboard or mouse. 64 4) Facilitation of Custom Modification Description There are some cases where special circumstances require the custom modifications of the product, either by the product manufacturer or a third-party. Standard product manufacturers can facilitate this process. Advantages 1) Allows Custom Fitting of Solution Since this approach involves custom modification of products for a specific individual the solution can be designed to better meet their needs then either third-party or built-in access features. Disadvantages 1) Must Be Installed User must find, buy and install/attach the access interface. 2) Very High Cost This approach is the most expensive. Unless it only involves relatively minor mechanical, electronic or programming modifications, the cost can be extremely high. 3) Public Shared Products This approach does not help at all for access to public or shared products. 4) No Compatibility Testing Testing for compatibility by third-party software or accessory manufacturers is not possible. Examples Leaving room for special attachments or labels, documenting hooks or places to patch into hardware or software, publishing information on safe or effective ways to modify products, or honoring warrantees for products which have been modified for accessibility but where the modification did not result in the problem. 65 The Best Approach Of the four approaches to Accessible Design, the first type, direct accessibility "from the box," is the best where it is possible. It allows the greatest access to products by persons with disabilities at the lowest cost. It also allows them to access products in public places where they could not otherwise modify the products to meet their particular needs. It also removes the stigma of "special" aids or modifications. This is especially important for older users who do not want to be labeled "disabled" even though their abilities are weakening. It should also be noted that most of us become temporarily "disabled" in a number of ways throughout our lives. Sometimes it is by accident, such as a broken arm or eye injury. Sometimes it is by circumstance, such as operating things in the dark where we can't see well, in loud environments (vacuuming or teenagers) where we can't hear well, with things in our arms where we can't reach well, when we're tired or on cold medication and can't think well, etc. Only those products which were designed to be more easily used directly "from the box" (#1 above) will be of use to us then. As mentioned above, more accessible designs are also usually easier to use by everyone all the time. But only if the ease of use is directly built in. There Are No "Accessible" Products In all of the discussions above, you will note that nowhere was a product described as being "accessible." Products are more accessible or less accessible. We can also talk about the accessibility of a product. However, it is impossible or inaccurate to ever make the flat statement or judgement that a product is "accessible" implying that it is accessible to all. There will always be individuals with severe and multiple physical, sensory, and cognitive impairments who will not be able to use the product. The corollary of this, of course, is that there is no set of measures that someone can take that will make their product "accessible." This is a difficult concept and unwelcome news for those manufacturers who sincerely want to make their products "accessible." Manufacturers can make their products more accessible or less accessible, but they cannot make them "accessible" on an absolute scale. In order to provide accessibility targets for manufacturers, however, a number of "minimum accessibility standards" have been developed. These generally take the form of building codes or other regulations. These are the minimum levels of accessibility that must be achieved in order to be acceptable according to some law or agency. Manufacturers, however, should view these as minimum accessibility standards, and strive to surpass them where they can. Individuals in the federal government who are interested in purchasing accessible products may establish minimum accessibility standards. However, their end goal is products that are as accessible as possible. Manufacturers should therefore not view minimum accessibility standards as Descriptions of accessibility. Products that met the standards would not be accessible. They could be said to "meet XYZ 66 accessibility standards," or they may "meet or exceed all XYZ accessibility standards." Thus, there are no totally accessible products. The use of the term accessible as a lone descriptor is misleading and confusing to those who try to practice accessible (or universal) design. Unfortunately, it is commonly used this way today. (Some suggested substitute words or usage might be: more accessible, less accessible, minimal accessibility standard, minimally acceptable accessibility, meets or meets and exceeds XYZ accessibility standards, ADA accessible, GSA Guideline Accessible, accessible to an individual, etc.) Partial versus Complete Access for an Individual or Type of Disability In designing products to be accessible, it is important to be sure that the whole product is accessible. Often, initial attempts at accessible design are done piecemeal. Accessible features are added where they are obvious rather than as a result of looking at the product's overall accessibility. The result can be a design which has accessible parts, but which is not as a whole accessible or usable. Access to half a product when the rest is inaccessible is of little practical use. In some cases, inspired by a desire to address the needs of people with different disabilities, it is even possible to design some parts of a device (such as the controls) to be more accessible to one population and design another part of the product with another disability in mind. Unless the whole product is accessible to at least one of these populations no-one is served. This is referred to as Solomon's Trap*. In most cases, it is possible with careful design to create products which are simultaneously accessible to people with different impairments. However, where this is not possible, care should be taken to be sure that the entire product is accessible to those disability populations that you are able to address. Efficient Access An important component of the Description of accessibility is that the individual be able to use the product in a "similar yet efficient" fashion. Because the individual with a disability may have different abilities from someone without a disability, they will undoubtedly have to do things somewhat differently. In fact, someone who is deaf and someone who is blind have differing abilities, and would have to access software in different ways from each other. Thus, the term similar does not imply that the person must access in exactly the same manner. They should, however, be able to access the product in as similar and efficient a manner as possible. The more similar and efficient the access, the more accessible an environment or product is. Sometimes efficiency and similarity must be played off against each other. In this case, efficiency is usually more important if the product requires frequent and continual use. Similarity is more important with products that are infrequently used or only used for very short periods of time and where there is not time pressure. 67 Accessibility Is a Continuous Function Accessibility is not a yes/no proposition. Even buildings or products which meet accessibility codes vary in their accessibility. The goal of accessible design would not be to meet minimum accessibility measures, but to create a product which is as accessible as possible and practical. * Vanderheiden, G., and Vanderheiden, K. (1991). Accessible Design of Computer Products: Guidelines for the Design of Consumer Products to Increase Their Accessibility to People with Disabilities or Who Are Aging, page 17. Madison, WI: Trace R&D Center, S-151 Waisman Center, 1500 Highland Avenue, ZIP 53705. 68 .d.Appendix D Section 508 Procurement Guidelines Federal Information Resources Management Regulations (FIRMR) Excerpts on Accessibility Selected excerpts from the new FIRMR, 41 CFR Chapter 201, related to access to information technology by people with disabilities. This regulation uses the umbrella term, Federal Information Processing (FIP) resources, to identify automatic data processing and telecommunications resources that are subject to GSA's exclusive procurement authority. All text that is both bold and enclosed in square brackets represents emphasis that is our own. All text that is in bold without also being enclosed in square brackets reflects the printing emphasis in the original document. For readers unfamiliar with the FIRMR, a brief excerpt concerning FIRMR applicability and scope has been included on the last page of this section. Copies of the FIRMR may be purchased from the Government Printing Office (GPO) Bookstore, Washington, DC 20402, telephone 202-275-1091. 69 (this page left blank intentionally to facilitate double-sided copying) 70 FIRMR Excerpts SUBCHAPTER C--MANAGEMENT AND USE OF FEDERAL INFORMATION PROCESSING (FIP) RESOURCES 201-17.001 Predominant Considerations The policies prescribed in subchapter C are designed to promote success in the acquisition, management, and use of Federal information processing (FIP) resources by emphasizing the importance for agencies to-- (a) Develop and annually revise, in coordination with budget activities, a 5-year plan to meet the agency's information technology needs; (b) Base requirements for FIP resources on agency mission, programs, and related information needs; (c) Consider the potential for deploying projected technological advances of FIP resources to enhance future performance of programs and operations in support of the agency mission; (d) Acquire FIP resources that result in the most advantageous alternative to the Government after consideration of-- (l) Sharing and reuse of existing FIP resources, (2) Use of General Services Administration (GSA) services, and (3) Acquisition of agency resources by contracting; (e) Establish responsibility through a designated senior official (DSO) when contracting for FIP resources under a delegation of GSA's exclusive procurement authority; (f) Assign an individual (such as a Trail Boss) responsible for coordinating programmatic, technical, and contracting functions when acquiring FIP resources; (g) Achieve full and open competition to the maximum extent practicable; (h) Acquire resources that comply with Federal standards; (i) Provide for security of resources, protection of information about individuals, continuity of operations, and national security and emergency preparedness; [j) Provide individuals with disabilities (employees and others who use the agency's electronic office equipment) equivalent access to electronic office equipment;] (k) Provide telecommunications access to hearing and speech impaired individuals;] (l) Review and evaluate existing resources and related management and acquisition activities on an ongoing basis; and (m) Replace outdated resources that are no longer the most advantageous alternative for satisfying the agency's requirements. 71 FIRMR EXCERPTS PART 201-18--PLANNING AND BUDGETING 201-18.001 General. (a) 44 U.S.C. 3506(c)(8) (the Paperwork Reduction Reauthorization Act of 1986) requires executive agencies to develop and annually revise a 5-year plan for meeting the agency's information technology needs. (b) Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular No. A-130 requires executive agencies to establish multiyear strategic planning processes for acquiring and operating information technology that meet program and mission needs, reflect budget constraints, and form the basis for their budget requests. (c) OMB Circular No. A-ll requires executive agencies to prepare and submit annual agency-wide "Major Information Technology Acquisition Plans." (d) The Computer Security Act of 1987 (Pub. L. 100-235, 40 U.S.C. 759 Note) requires agencies to identify each FIP system that contains sensitive information and prepare a plan for the security and privacy of each such system. [(e) Section 50s of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 19s6 (Public Law 99-506) requires the Federal Government to adopt guidelines for electronic equipment accessibility designed to ensure that individuals with disabilities may use electronic office equipment. This Act requires that agencies comply with such guidelines. FIRMR Bulletin C-8 provides guidance on planning for the FIP resources accommodation needs of individuals with disabilities.] (f) The General Services Administration (GSA) helps agencies with their IRM planning by issuing handbooks, bulletins, and other guidance documents. IRM planning services are available, on a cost- reimbursable basis, through GSA's Office of Technical Assistance. (g) GSA reviews agency IRM plans and the planning process as part of the Information Resources Procurement and Management Review Program described in part 201-22. Agencies' IRM planning is a factor in delegating procurement authority for FIP resources. 72 FIRMR Excerpts 201-18.002 Policies. (a) Agencies shall develop a 5-year plan for meeting the agency's information technology needs. This plan shall-- (l) Reflect current and future program and mission needs; (2) Consider the potential for deploying projected technological advances of FIP resources to enhance future performance of programs and operations in support of the agency mission; (3) Consider FIP resources needed to meet the national security and emergency preparedness needs of the agency; (4) Reflect budget constraints; (5) Form the basis for the agency's budget requests to OMB; (6) Serve as the foundation for requirements analyses; and (7) Be updated as needed, but at least annually. (b) Agencies shall ensure that the IRM planning process includes the participation of each of the agency's program areas, as well as those organizations responsible for IRM (including records management), contracting, and budget preparation. [(c) Agencies shall adopt electronic equipment accessibility guidelines similar to those described in FIRMR Bulletin C-8 and C- 10 in their planning process.] (d) Agencies shall ensure that acquisition of FIP resources is in accordance with the updated 5-year plan. 201-20--ACQUISITION 201-20.103-7 Accessibility requirements for individuals with disabilities. [(a) Agencies shall provide equivalent access to electronic office equipment for individuals with disabilities (employees and others who use the agency's electronic office equipment) to the extent both present and future needs for such access are determined by the agency. (b) Agencies shall provide telecommunications access to hearing and speech-impaired individuals to the extent both present and future needs for such access are identified in the requirements analysis. Telecommunications access for hearing and speech impaired individuals shall include education and training on the services and features of the GSA relay service.] (l) Agencies shall publish access numbers for TDD and TDD-related devices in telephone directories and provide such agency numbers to GSA for inclusion in the Federal TDD Directory. (2) Agencies shall display in their buildings or offices the standard logo specified by GSA for indicating the presence of TDD or TDD-related equipment. 73 (c) Agencies shall consider the guidance contained in FIRMR Bulletins C-8 and C-10 on the subject of accessibility requirements for individuals with disabilities.] 74 FIRMR Excerpts Due to the importance of the timely provision of equipment for persons with disabilities, the FIRMR contains an exception to the policy on deviations from the FIRMR as follows: 201-3.401 Policy. Deviations from the FIRMR shall be kept to a minimum consistent with the specific needs and statutory authorities of each agency. Individual and class deviations may be authorized by GSA's Commissioner, Information Resources Management Service, or the officials designated by the Commissioner for this purpose. 201-3.402 Exception. [(a) For an acquisition limited solely to providing electronic office equipment accessibility for employees with disabilities, an individual deviation from the FIRMR may be authorized by the agency's DSO or the DSO's authorized representatives. This deviation authority is limited to those FIRMR provisions that-- (1) Are not specifically prescribed by statute or executive order; (2) Do not change the level of procurement authority delegated from GSA to the agency; and (3) Impede or obstruct the acquisition of technology for employees with disabilities. (b) A deviation authorized under paragraph (a) of this section may be granted immediately upon a written determination by the agency, identifying those FIRMR provisions impeding or obstructing the acquisition of technology for employees with disabilities. Agencies shall promptly provide a copy of each determination and deviation to: General Services Administration, Policy and Regulations Division (RMP), 18th & F Streets, NW, Washington, DC 20405.] 201-3.403 Procedures. (a) The agency head or designee shall prescribe an agency procedure for the control of requests for deviations from the FIRMR. The procedure should include coordination with the agency DSO as appropriate. Agencies shall provide a copy of this procedure upon request to the address in 201-3.402(b). (b) Each request shall explain the nature of and the reasons for the deviation. (c) Agencies shall forward requests for deviations to the address in 201-3.402(b). 75 FIRMR Excerpts For readers unfamiliar with the FIRMR, the following excerpt concerning FIRMR applicability follows: 201-1.000 scope of part. This part prescribes the extent to which the Federal Information Resources Management Regulation (FIRMR) applies to the creation, maintenance, and use of Federal records and the acquisition, management, and use of Federal information processing (FIP) resources by Federal agencies. It also discusses the basic authority for the FIRMR. 201-1.002-1 Policy. The FIRMR applies to-- (a) The acquisition, management, and use of FIP resources by Federal agencies. (b) Any Federal agency solicitation or contract when either paragraph (b)(l), (b)(2), or (b)(3) applies: (l) The solicitation or contract requires the delivery of FIP resources for use by a Federal agency or users designated by the agency. (2) The solicitation or contract explicitly requires the use by the contractor of FIP resources that are not incidental to the performance of the contract. FIP resources acquired by a contractor are incidental to the performance of a contract when: (i) None of the principal tasks of the contract depend directly on the use of the FIP resources; or (ii) The requirements of the contract do not have the effect of substantially restricting the contractor's discretion in the acquisition and management of FIP resources, whether the use of FIP resources is or is not specifically stated in the contract. (3) The solicitation or contract requires the performance of a service or the furnishing of a product that is performed or produced making significant use of FIP resources that are not incidental to the performance of the contract. Significant use of FIP resources means: (i) The service or product of the contract could not reasonably be produced or performed without the use of FIP resources; and (ii) The dollar value of FIP resources expended by the contractor to perform the service or furnish the product is expected to exceed $500,000 or 20 percent of the estimated cost of the contract, whichever amount is lower. (c) The creation, maintenance, and use of records by Federal agencies. 76 this page left intentionally blank to facilitate double-sided copying 77 GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION Washington, DC 20405 January 30, 1991 FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 TO: Heads of Federal agencies SUBJECT: Information accessibility for employees with disabilities 1. Purpose. This bulletin provides information and guidance regarding agencies' responsibility to meet the special Federal information processing (FIP) resource accommodation needs of individuals with disabilities. 2. Expiration date. This bulletin contains information of a continuing nature and will remain in effect until canceled. 3. Contents. Topic Paraqraph Related material................................................4 Information and assistance......................................5 Definitions.....................................................6 Acronyms........................................................7 Public Law 99-506...............................................8 COCA............................................................9 General........................................................10 Agency responsibilities........................................ll COCA services..................................................12 Cancellation...................................................13 Functional Specifications............................Attachment A 4. Related material. a. FIRMR 201-18.001 b. FIRMR 201-20.103-7 c. GSA handbook, "Managing End User Computing for Users with Disabilities" d. FIRMR Bulletin C-10 "Telecommunications Accessibility for Hearing and Speech Impaired Individuals" TC 90-1 Attachment FEDERAL INFORMATION RESOURCES MANAGEMENT REGULATION APPENDIX B 78 FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 POTENTIAL SOURCES FOR ADP RESOURCES SHARING By Manufacturer and System Type This attachment lists, by manufacturer and system type, ADP systems that are available within the Federal government to make computer time available for use by other Federal agencies. Attachment B lists the information alphabetically by geographic location. For information and assistance or to effect changes to this attachment, contact: General Services Administration Authorizations Branch (KMAS) 18th and F Streets, NW Washington, DC 20405 Telephone (202) 501-1566 or FTS 241-1566. Key to symbols: * Indicates the installation has a substantial amount of computer time available to support other agencies' requirements. The installation is considered to be among the best known potential Government sources for sharing. @ Indicates a Federal Data Processing Center (FDPC). (Although outside the scope of the sharing program, FDPC listings are provided for the convenience of the reader.) # Indicates Amdahl, ITEL, or Magnuson systems that are compatible with equivalent IBM systems. Manufacturer/ Location and System Point of Contact #Amdahl U. S. Geological Survey 5890 Reston National Center Reston, VA Elaine Stout (703) 648-7157 or FTS 959-7157 Amdahl Dept. of Transportation 470/V7A Transportation System Center Cambridge, MA Chuck Pandil (617) 494-2217 or FTS 837-2217 5. Information and assistance. a. Technical General Services Administration Clearinghouse on Computer Accommodation (KGDO) 18th and F Streets, NW Washington, DC 20405 Voice or TDD: FTS 241-4906 or 202-501-4906. 79 FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 b. Policy General Services Administration Regulations Branch (KMPR) 18th and F Streets, NW Washington, DC 20405 Telephone: FTS 241-3194 or (202) 501-3194. 6. Definitions. "Computer accommodation" means the acquisition or modification of FIP resources to minimize the functional limitations of employees in order to promote productivity and to ensure access to work-related information resources. "Information accessibility" means the application or configuration of FIP resources in a manner that accommodates the functional limitations of individuals with disabilities so as to promote productivity and provide access to work-related or public information resources. "Handicapped individuals" or "individuals with disabilities" means qualified individuals with impairments, as cited in 29 CFR 1613.702(f), who can benefit from electronic office equipment accessibility. "Special peripheral" is defined in Section 508 of Pub. L. 99506 as "a special needs aid that provides access to electronic equipment that is otherwise inaccessible to a handicapped individual." 7. Acronyms. COCA Clearinghouse on Computer Accommodation DSO Designated Senior Official FIP Federal Information Processing 8. Public Law 99-506. In 1986, Congress reauthorized the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended (Pub. L. 99-506, 29 U.S.C. 794d). Section 508, as incorporated into the Act, mandates that guidelines be established to ensure that handicapped individuals may use electronic office equipment with or without special peripherals and that agencies comply with these guidelines in acquiring electronic equipment. 9. COCA. In 1985, GSA's Information Resources Management Service (IRMS) established an information resource center called COCA, to assist Federal agencies in providing information accessibility to individuals with disabilities. 10. General. 80 a. Accessibility. Workstations for Federal employees with sensory, cognitive, or mobility impairments may be equipped with special FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 peripherals or software that provide access to computer technology, primarily microcomputers. This accessibility is a necessary link that enables handicapped employees to function efficiently and effectively on the job. b. Equivalent access. Disabled individuals and nondisabled individuals should be provided equivalent access to electronic office equipment. FIP resources, particularly microcomputers, provide enhancement features, such as text enlarging and speech input and output, allowing disabled individuals to accomplish tasks previously impossible for them. For example, the inherent flexibility of microcomputers permits their adaptation to meet the specific needs of disabled individuals through the use of braille printers, spoken screen review, and keyboard replacement devices. c. Functional specifications. Attachment A presents specifications that are organized by functional requirement into three categories: input, output and documentation. These specifications reflect the major areas that need to be considered during planning and acquisition. d. Accessibility alternatives. Accessibility solutions range from third-party hardware and software add-ons, such as "layered" solutions, to hardware "built-ins" and operating system enhancements. Agencies should attempt to provide the same equipment to all of their employees, whether or not they are disabled. For that reason, "built-in" accessibility solutions are preferable to "layered" solutions. Layering involves adding layers of software between the end-user and the operating system or application software. While this often complex solution may have advantages, such as increased function and performance, it can also have serious disadvantages. Disadvantages include increased costs, greater difficulty in maintaining software updates at the operating system level, and increased costs to train employees to utilize dissimilar equipment at different sites within the agency. For these reasons, layering should be selected as an accessibility solution only after careful analysis of its merits relative to that of "built-in" solutions. 11. Agency responsibilities. a. DSO. The agency DSO for Federal information processing resources is the individual primarily responsible for ensuring electronic office equipment accessibility for current or prospective employees with disabilities. This responsibility also includes providing access to Federal public information resources for individuals with disabilities. The DSO or an authorized representative should monitor progress toward achieving electronic equipment accessibility goals. The Federal Information Resources Management Review Program is one means of monitoring this progress. b. FIRMR requirement. The FIRMR requires that agencies shall provide FIP resource accessibility to individuals with disabilities and that agencies consider the guidance contained in FIRMR bulletins concerning this subject. This action is essential to enable handicapped employees to perform as productive employees. c. Coordinated effort required. Agency management and technical personnel need to work closely with contracting officials when 81 contracting for new or additional FIP resources to ensure FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 accessibility to FIP resources by individuals with disabilities. Acquisition, management and technical personnel should: (l) Provide to contracting officials, for inclusion in the solicitation, an inventory and description of any accommodation hardware or software currently-being used with the resources scheduled for replacement or modification. (2) Specify the need for a plan from prospective offerers that ensures functionally equivalent or better access to and use of proposed replacement resources. (3) Specify the need for technical assistance in resolving problems in providing computer accommodation resources. (4) Specify the need for the Government to be permitted to install additional accommodation devices, peripherals, or software that may be acquired from a third party, without voiding the maintenance and warranty agreements of the contract, provided such devices or peripherals conform to the electrical specifications of the system and can be connected through standard expansion slots or peripheral ports. (5) Develop functional specifications to meet the access needs of individuals with disabilities (see Attachment A). d. Consult GSA handbook. Agency managers determining accommodation strategies for FIP resource accessibility should consult the GSA handbook "Managing End User Computing for Users with Disabilities" for guidance. This handbook is available from COCA. 12. COCA services. Upon request for assistance, COCA will: a. Respond to requests for general information on frequently used hardware/software and workstation furnishings to accommodate individuals with disabilities. b. Assist agencies with researching specific hardware, software and communications problems associated with an employee's computer accommodation requirements. c. Provide on-going consultative/technical assistance to agencies during planning, acquisition, and installation of individual and agency wide office automation systems; and d. Conduct workshops on computer accommodation procedures. 13. Cancellation. FIRMR Bulletins 42, 48, and 56 are canceled. Thomas J. Buckholtz Commissioner Information Resources Management Service 82 FIRMR BULLETIN C-8 this page left intentionally blank to facilitate double-sided copying 83 FIRMR Bulletin C-8 Attachment A FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS These specifications are organized by functional requirement into three categories: input, output and documentation. This organization reflects the major areas that need to be considered during planning and acquisition. The capabilities set forth in these specifications are currently available from industry in various degrees of functional adequacy, except for access to screen memory for translating bit- mapped graphic images. GSA will update this attachment to keep pace with technological advances and to address other types of FIP resources. 1. Input alternatives. Access problems concerning the input interface to a microcomputer differ according to the type and severity of an employee's functional limitation. Some users with disabilities are capable of using a keyboard, if it can be modified slightly. Others require an alternative input strategy. The following is an overview of common input alternatives and other input functional requirements that should be considered: a. Multiple simultaneous operation. Microcomputers have many commonly used functions that require simultaneous striking of multiple keys or buttons. Sequential activation control provides an alternative method of operation by enabling a user to depress keys or buttons one at a time to execute the same function. b. Input redundancy. Some programs require a "mouse" or other fine motor control device for input. Some users with motor disabilities cannot operate these devices. An input redundancy feature permits the functions of these devices to be performed by the keyboard or other suitable alternative such as voice input. c. Alternative input devices. The capability to connect an alternative input device can be made available to a user who is not able to use a modified standard keyboard. This feature supplements the keyboard and any other standard input system used. The alternative input capability consists of a port (serial, parallel, etc.) or connection capability allowing an accommodation aid to be connected to the system to augment or replace the keyboard. For example, an alternative input device, such as a switch, eye scan, or headtracking system, may be customized to provide the most effective method of input for a user while supporting transparent hardware emulation for standard input devices, such as the keyboard and the mouse. d. Key Repeat. A typical microcomputer generates repetitions of a character if the key for that character remains depressed. This is a problem for users without sufficient motor control. A key repeat feature can give a user control over the repeat start time and rate by allowing the timing parameters to be extended or the repeat function to be turned off. e. Toggle key status control. Microcomputer toggle keys provide visual indications of whether they are on or off. 84 A toggle key status feature provides an alternative, non- FIRMR BULLETIN C-8: ATTACHMENT A visual means of showing the on or off status of a toggle key. f. Keyboard orientation aids. To orient a visually impaired user to a particular keyboard, a set of tactile overlays should be available to identify the most important keys. The tactile overlays can be in the form of keycap replacements or transparent sticky tape with unique symbols to identify the various keys. g. Keyguards. To assist a motor-disabled user, a keyguard should be available to stabilize movements and help ensure that the correct keys are depressed. A keyguard is a keyboard template with holes corresponding to the location of the keys. 2. Output alternatives. Some users with disabilities need an alternative output to be able to functionally use FIP resources. The following is an overview of common output alternatives, and other output functional requirements, that should be considered: a. Auditory output. The auditory output capability on current microcomputers is sufficient to beep and play music. However, some users with disabilities may require a speech capability. A speech synthesizer is required to generate speech on today's computers. The capability to support a speech synthesizer should continue to be available in future generations of computers, or this capability may be internalized through an upgrade of the computer's internal speaker. The speech capability should include user-adjustable volume control and a headset jack. b. Information redundancy. Currently, several programs activate a speaker on the microcomputer to provide information to the user. Some programs do not have the capability to present this information visually to the hearing-impaired user. An information redundancy feature presents a visual equivalent of the auditory information provided. c. Monitor display. The requirement to enhance text size, reproduce text orally or in braille, or modify display characteristics is crucial for some users with visual disabilities. To ensure that this access continues, the following capabilities are required: (l) Large Print display. There should be a means for enlarging a portion of the screen for a low-vision user. This process uses a window or similar mechanism allowing magnification to be controlled by a user. A user can invoke the large-print display capability from the keyboard or control pad for use in conjunction with any work-related applications software. If applications software includes graphics, enlargement of graphic displays should also be available. (2) Access to visually displayed information. The capability to access the screen is necessary to 85 support the speech or braille output requirement of many blind users. Currently, blind users are able to FIRMR BULLETIN C-8: ATTACHMENT A select and review the spoken or braille equivalent of text from any portion of the screen while using standard applications software. Third-party vendors should have access to the screen contents in a manner that can be translated and directed to any internal speech chip, a speech synthesizer on a serial or parallel port, or a braille display device. Information presented pictorially also needs to be available in such a manner that, as software sophistication improves, it may eventually be translated using alternative display systems. (3) Color presentation. When colors must be distinguished in order to understand information on the display, color- blind end users should be provided with a means of selecting the colors to be displayed. 3. Documentation. Access to documentation for computer technology in a usable format should be provided for Federal employees with disabilities. Braille, large print, or ASCII disk equivalents of standard manuals are options to be considered. 86 this page left intentionally blank to facilitate double-sided copying 87