Antarctica, Geography

Location:
  continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle
Map references:
  Antarctic Region
Area:
total area:
  14 million sq km (est.)
land area:
  14 million sq km (est.)
comparative area:
  slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
note:
  second-smallest continent (after Australia)
Land boundaries:
  none, but see entry on International disputes
Coastline:
  17,968 km
Maritime claims:
  none, but see entry on International Disputes
International disputes:
  Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary below);
  sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile,
  France (Adelie Land), New Zealand (Ross Dependency), Norway (Queen
  Maud Land), and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the
  territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves
  (the US reserves the right to do so); no formal claims have been made
  in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Climate:
  severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance
  from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because
  of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate
  climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and
  average slightly below freezing
Terrain:
  about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
  elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 4,897
  meters high; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria
  Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross
  Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of
  the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of
  the continent
Natural resources:
  none presently exploited; iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel,
  platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found
  in small, uncommercial quantities
Land use:
arable land:
  0%
permanent crops:
  0%
meadows and pastures:
  0%
forest and woodland:
  0%
other:
  100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
Irrigated land:
  0 sq km
Environment:
current issues:
  in October 1991 it was reported that the ozone shield, which protects
  the Earth's surface from harmful ultraviolet radiation, had dwindled
  to the lowest level recorded over Antarctica since 1975 when
  measurements were first taken
natural hazards:
  katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high
  interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau;
  cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the
  coast; volcanism on Deception Island and isolated areas of West
  Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
international agreements:
  NA
Note:
  the coldest, windiest, highest, and driest continent; during summer
  more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is
  received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable

Antarctica, People

Population:
  no indigenous inhabitants; note - there are seasonally staffed
  research stations
Summer (January) population:
  over 4,115 total; Argentina 207, Australia 268, Belgium 13, Brazil 80,
  Chile 256, China NA, Ecuador NA, Finland 11, France 78, Germany 32,
  Greenpeace 12, India 60, Italy 210, Japan 59, South Korea 14,
  Netherlands 10, NZ 264, Norway 23, Peru 39, Poland NA, South Africa
  79, Spain 43, Sweden 10, UK 116, Uruguay NA, US 1,666, former USSR 565
  (1989-90)
Winter (July) population:
  over 1,046 total; Argentina 150, Australia 71, Brazil 12, Chile 73,
  China NA, France 33, Germany 19, Greenpeace 5, India 1, Japan 38,
  South Korea 14, NZ 11, Poland NA, South Africa 12, UK 69, Uruguay NA,
  US 225, former USSR 313 (1989-90)
Year-round stations:
  42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 3, China 2,
  Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 2, South Korea 1, NZ 1,
  Poland 1, South Africa 3, UK 5, Uruguay 1, US 3, former USSR 6
  (1990-91)
Summer only stations:
  over 38 total; Argentina 7, Australia 3, Chile 5, Germany 3, India 1,
  Italy 1, Japan 4, NZ 2, Norway 1, Peru 1, South Africa 1, Spain 1,
  Sweden 2, UK 1, US numerous, former USSR 5 (1989-90); note - the
  disintegration of the former USSR has placed the status and future of
  its Antarctic facilities in doubt; stations may be subject to closings
  at any time because of ongoing economic difficulties
Names:
conventional long form:
  none
conventional short form:
  Antarctica
Digraph:
  AY
Type:
Antarctic Treaty Summary:
  The Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force
  on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of
  Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member
  meetings - the 18th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in Japan
  in April 1993. Currently, there are 42 treaty member nations: 26
  consultative and 16 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include
  the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national
  territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The US and
  some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to
  do so. The US does not recognize the claims of others. The year in
  parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full
  consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was
  an original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina,
  Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
  consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985),
  Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy
  (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
  Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay
  (1985), the US, and Russia.
  Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses,
  are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988),
  Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987),
  Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea
  (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), and
  Ukraine (1992).
Article 1:
  area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as
  weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment
  may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose
Article 2:
  freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue
Article 3:
  free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the UN
  and other international agencies
Article 4:
  does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no
  new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force
Article 5:
  prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes
Article 6:
  includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees
  00 minutes south
Article 7:
  treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation,
  to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and
  equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of
  military personnel must be given
Article 8:
  allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own
  states
Article 9:
  frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations
Article 10:
  treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica
  that are contrary to the treaty
Article 11:
  disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or,
  ultimately, by the ICJ
Article 12, 13, 14:
  deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among
  involved nations
Other agreements:
  more than 170 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings
  and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for the
  Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964); Convention for the
  Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972); Convention on the Conservation
  of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980); a mineral resources
  agreement was signed in 1988 but was subsequently rejected; in 1991
  the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was
  signed and awaits ratification; this agreement provides for the
  protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes
  on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact
  assessments, waste management, and protected areas; it also prohibits
  all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific
  research; nine parties have ratified Protocol as of April 1994
Legal system:
  US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US
  nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction
  of other countries. Some US laws directly apply to Antarctica. For
  example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et
  seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following
  activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: The taking of
  native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and
  animals; entry into specially protected or scientific areas; the
  discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US
  of certain items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic
  Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and 1
  year in prison. The Departments of Treasury, Commerce, Transportation,
  and Interior share enforcement responsibilities. Public Law 95-541,
  the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from
  the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and
  Polar Affairs, Room 5801, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520,
  which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic
  Treaty. For more information contact Permit Office, Office of Polar
  Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230
  (703-306-1031).
Overview:
  No economic activity at present except for fishing off the coast and
  small-scale tourism, both based abroad.

Antarctica, Communications

Ports:
  none; offshore anchorage only at most coastal stations
Airports:
  42 landing facilities at different locations operated by 15 national
  governments party to the Treaty; one additional air facility operated
  by commercial (nongovernmental) tourist organization; helicopter pads
  at 28 of these locations; runways at 10 locations are gravel, sea ice,
  glacier ice, or compacted snow surface suitable for wheeled fixed-wing
  aircraft; no paved runways; 16 locations have snow-surface skiways
  limited to use by ski-equipped planes--11 runways/skiways 1,000 to
  3,000 m, 3 runways/skiways less than 1,000 m, 5 runways/skiways
  greater than 3,000 m, and 7 of unspecified or variable length;
  airports generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
  resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; airports do
  not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the respective
  governmental or non-governmental operating organization required for
  landing

Antarctica, Defense Forces

Note:
  the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such
  as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the
  carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of
  weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for
  scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes


Antigua and Barbuda, Geography

Location:
  Caribbean, in the eastern Caribbean Sea, about 420 km east-southeast
  of Puerto Rico
Map references:
  Central America and the Caribbean, Standard Time Zones of the World
Area:
total area:
  440 sq km
land area:
  440 sq km
comparative area:
  slightly less than 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
note:
  includes Redonda
Land boundaries:
  0 km
Coastline:
  153 km
Maritime claims:
contiguous zone:
  24 nm
exclusive economic zone:
  200 nm
territorial sea:
  12 nm
International disputes:
  none
Climate:
  tropical marine; little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain:
  mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands with some higher volcanic
  areas
Natural resources:
  negligible; pleasant climate fosters tourism
Land use:
arable land:
  18%
permanent crops:
  0%
meadows and pastures:
  7%
forest and woodland:
  16%
other:
  59%
Irrigated land:
  NA sq km
Environment:
current issues:
  insufficient freshwater resources
natural hazards:
  subject to hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October)
international agreements:
  party to - Biodiversity, Climate Change, Environmental Modification,
  Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship
  Pollution, Whaling

Antigua and Barbuda, People

Population:
  64,762 (July 1994 est.)
Population growth rate:
  0.59% (1994 est.)
Birth rate:
  17.31 births/1,000 population (1994 est.)
Death rate:
  5.44 deaths/1,000 population (1994 est.)
Net migration rate:
  -5.93 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1994 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
  18.5 deaths/1,000 live births (1994 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population:
  73.11 years
male:
  71.07 years
female:
  75.26 years (1994 est.)
Total fertility rate:
  1.67 children born/woman (1994 est.)
Nationality:
noun:
  Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s)
adjective:
  Antiguan, Barbudan
Ethnic divisions:
  black African, British, Portuguese, Lebanese, Syrian
Religions:
  Anglican (predominant), other Protestant sects, some Roman Catholic
Languages:
  English (official), local dialects
Literacy:
  age 15 and over having completed 5 or more years of schooling (1960)
total population:
  89%
male:
  90%
female:
  88%
Labor force:
  30,000
by occupation:
  commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983)

Antigua and Barbuda, Government

Names:
conventional long form:
  none
conventional short form:
  Antigua and Barbuda
Digraph:
  AC
Type:
  parliamentary democracy
Capital:
  Saint John's
Administrative divisions:
  6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George,
  Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip
Independence:
  1 November 1981 (from UK)
National holiday:
  Independence Day, 1 November (1981)
Constitution:
  1 November 1981
Legal system:
  based on English common law
Suffrage:
  18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state:
  Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by Governor
  General James B. CARLISLE (since NA 1993)
head of government:
  Prime Minister Lester Bryant BIRD (since 8 March 1994)
cabinet:
  Council of Ministers; appointed by the governor general on the advice
  of the prime minister
Legislative branch:
  bicameral Parliament
Senate:
  17 member body appointed by the governor general
House of Representatives:
  elections last held 8 March 1994 (next to be held NA 1999); results -
  percent of vote by party NA; seats - (17 total) ALP 11, UPP 5,
  independent 1
Judicial branch:
  Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court
Political parties and leaders:
  Antigua Labor Party (ALP), Lester Bryant BIRD; United Progressive
  Party (UPP), Baldwin SPENCER
Other political or pressure groups:
  United Progressive Party (UPP), headed by Baldwin SPENCER, a coalition
  of three opposition political parties - the United National Democratic
  Party (UNDP); the Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement (ACLM); and
  the Progressive Labor Movement (PLM); Antigua Trades and Labor Union
  (ATLU), headed by Noel THOMAS
Member of:
  ACP, C, CARICOM, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, GATT, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IFAD,
  IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT (nonsignatory user), INTERPOL, IOC, ITU,
  LORCS, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WCL,
  WHO, WMO
Diplomatic representation in US:
chief of mission:
  Ambassador Patrick Albert LEWIS
chancery:
  Suite 4M, 3400 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone:
  (202) 362-5211 or 5166, 5122
FAX:
  (202) 362-5225
consulate(s) general:
  Miami
US diplomatic representation:
chief of mission:
  the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda,
  and, in his absence, the Embassy is headed by Charge d'Affaires Bryant
  J. SALTER
embassy:
  Queen Elizabeth Highway, Saint John's
mailing address:
  FPO AA 34054-0001
telephone:
  (809) 462-3505 or 3506
FAX:
  (809) 462-3516
Flag:
  red with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the
  flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top),
  light blue, and white with a yellow rising sun in the black band